Get 20M+ Full-Text Papers For Less Than $1.50/day. Start a 14-Day Trial for You or Your Team.

Learn More →

Investigating privacy principles’ formation in vernacular architecture of arid and semi-arid parts of Iran

Investigating privacy principles’ formation in vernacular architecture of arid and semi-arid... Viera Joklová * Traditional Iranian architecture principles have deep roots in this region's culture, thoughts, and climatic conditions. Privacy, as one of these principles, which has ever reg- ulated all aspects of life, has been beautifully embodied in the vernacular residential ar- 1, 2 Slovak University of Technology, Faculty chitecture of Iran. It proved to have profound effects which resulted in a specific spatial of Architecture and Design, Institute of Urban organization of the house and the placement of various functions, either private or semi- Design and Planning, Bratislava, Slovakia private. Many research studies have claimed that privacy was an attribute of Islamic rules in Iranian architecture. Based on historical and phenomenological analyses of ver- *Corresponding author nacular Iranian architecture this paper strives to confront the privacy principle also ac- E-mail: viera.joklova@stuba.sk cording to Iranian (or former Persian) culture, climate, and security conditions. Changed Article information th geopolitical and cultural conditions in the 20 century raised new forms of architectural Sent: Oct 19, 2022 residential morphology almost completely negating the principle of privacy. The ques- Accepted: Mar 12, 2023 tion is whether the vernacular principle of privacy should be embodied in the new de- sign of Iranian residential houses or be preserved merely as an expression of former culture increasing the quality of the image of the city and its attractiveness. The research completed by qualitative morphological and analytical methods clarifies the mentioned principles and identifies the definition of privacy, the factors affecting it, the roots of its formation, its influence on the physical-spatial organization of traditional residential ar- chitecture in Iran, and its continuation in modern residential architecture in Iran. Keywords: privacy, climatic architecture, Iran, Islamic rules, vernacular residential architecture INTRODUCTION residences to confront harsh circumstances (Khalili, Amindeldar, 2014). Generally, structures in this region have been logically af- fected by nature and culture. As a result, unlike many modern fa- Throughout the history of humankind, vernacular residential ar- cilities, the traditional buildings in Iran are compatible with and chitecture has been constructed with regard to security issues have a harmonious relationship with the natural and cultural and local sources; its shapes and dispositions have been strongly conditions (Keshtkaran, 2011). determined by the utilization of local building materials, the cli- mate, and by the social and cultural conditions. “Vernacular ar- chitecture is a good example of intuitive building effectiveness” so Even in the pre-Islam era, Iranian architecture has paid particular as many variables – climate, materials, living styles, are effec- attention to preserving privacy in buildings, this can be perceived tively integrated in the architectural morphology (Joklová, Ba- in ancient Persepolis city structures or the Apadana principle. cová, 2013). Weather in the major part of the Iranian central plat- This phenomenon, in turn, has led many researchers to consider eau is hot and arid (Fig. 1), and many historic cities with valuable cultural-religious approaches and climate issues in their design architectural designs are located in this hot and arid region process (Mahdavinejad, 2004). Therefore, traditional architec- (Keshtkaran, 2011). Residential structures in these conditions ture can be viewed as a treasure full of concepts and human were characterized by narrow streets and dwelling units turned methods that have worked to pay attention to the security and inward. Narrow streets provided shade from the scorching sun comfort of the users of the building (Mahdavinejad, 2002). In gen- as well as greater protection from the expanding desert and en- eral, “buildings built by human hands are manifestations of his at- th emy raids. From the 7 century onwards, Iranian architecture titude towards the universe, which is based on the intellectual and was vastly influenced by the principles of Islamic rules, which social-cultural structure of the people of that society” (Emami, shaped buildings and the cities’ architecture. Besides, Iranian hot 2011). One of the essential principles that have been paid atten- and cold climatic regions require a significant amount of energy tion to in the traditional architecture of Iran is the principle of for heating, cooling, and ventilation. However, with the same cli- privacy, which is best used in all buildings, from vast and large matic conditions in the past, multiple effective strategies have public buildings to residential houses, and from urban public been used in vernacular ____________________________________ © 2023 Authors. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-International License (https://creativecommons.org/li- censes/by/4.0/). Published by the Faculty of Architecture and Design, Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Slovakia 3 ALFA 1/2023 (Vol. 28) spaces to semi-public spaces, which have been used more pri- separate the microclimate and indoor climate and thus influence vately (Seyfian, Mahmudi, 2007). “The architecture of the past re- the indoor climate significantly (Nasrollahi, 2009). lied on the dignity of man, honouring the position of a man who was the caliph of God on earth” (Hujjat, 2008). The desire for privacy is a general requirement but relates to var- iables such as culture, age, gender, personality, and situated fac- Indigenous housing in Iranian hot and dry climate has constantly tors (Hall, 1966; Altman, Chemers, 1980). This article explores provided thermal comfort for its residents, followed by the coor- how different conditions affect privacy formation, especially in dination of the construction principles according to climatic con- residential design. It is vital to recognize what privacy is and how ditions, environmental mitigation, and energy-saving solutions. it can affect the architecture, especially the layout of the plans, The microclimate of the area in which the building is constructed and placement of windows and doors. The research aims to sur- affects the indoor climate of a closed or architectural space. Cli- vey the principle of privacy, its historical and phenomenological mate and environmental conditions are critical parameters in a aspects and the manifestation in the vernacular residential archi- building design. Buildings are designed to achieve or create a tecture in Iran. The study defines the influence of cultural and re- suitable atmosphere for human comfort (Givoni, 1976). They ligious backgrounds as well as climatic conditions on Iranian ar- provide essential protection against the outdoor climate. Fur- chitectural style. It raises the questions about the sustainability thermore, they create an artificial indoor environment based on of this principle in modern architectural design in Iran. the surrounding microclimate. Architectural elements forming the thermal envelope, such as walls, windows, roofs, and floors, Fig. 1. Bioclimatic map of Iran. (Source: Muassasah i Jughrafiay i va Kartugrafi i Sahab, 1972; modified by authors) BACKGROUND Altman (1975) defines it as a process to justify the borders among people by a person who supervises their relationship. Ac- In general, we can state that privacy is the right to be let alone. It cording to Altman, privacy is a dialectic process built on two pow- is one of the main principles of residential architecture and one ers: “being with others” and “avoiding being with others.” Ac- of the essential rights of the individual. The layout of the apart- cording to Gifford’s (2002) definition, “privacy means selective ment or house has to offer spaces for the separation and sociali- control of access to self, either in person or in terms of information zation of an individual, family member or community. “Privacy is about oneself” (Niay Gharaei, Rafieian, Jalalkamali, 2012). It can a conventional process by that a person or group of people exposes be considered a preference, expectation, value, need, or behav- themselves to others” (Niay Gharaei, Rafieian, Jalalkamali, 2012). iour. Differences in privacy behaviour originate in personal char- 4 ALFA 1/2023 (Vol. 28) acteristics, social situations, physical settings, and culture. “Some was for men, and the one with high pitched sound was for women. This difference helped the house members and the one who opened people, because of their culture, personality, or other characteris- the door know the gender of the guests from the sound of the slot tics, require more privacy or express privacy needs differently from and be prepared to see them” (Nayyeri Fallah, Khalili, Rasdi, others. Certain social situations or physical settings, regardless of 2014). who is in them, engender different privacy needs” (Gifford, 2002; Altman, 1975; Hall, 1959). In other words, the person or the group chooses mechanisms based on the basis of age, gender, personality, cultural–social background, and situated factors to achieve desired privacy (Altman, Chemers, 1980; Lang, 1987; Niay Gharaei, Rafieian, Jalalkamali, 2012). Cultural influences on privacy The desire for privacy varies from one culture to another. Some cultures need more privacy than others (Altman, Chemers, 1980). According to this fact, Hall (1966) classified cultures into Fig. 2. Scheme of the spatial configuration of a traditional residential house in two different classes: contact and non-contact. Based on his stud- Iran. (Source: Authors) ies, the spatial behaviour of Mediterranean and northern Euro- pean people is significantly distinguishable; Mediterranean soci- The public layer as a boundary space with the public space of the eties prefer relatively interactive distances, while north Euro- street shows the spatial system of privacy from outside to inside pean institutions prefer greater interactive lengths. Hall’s studies the house. The public space of the house does not allow a view became the basis of subsequent research on the cultural effects into the internal semi-public or private spaces. Thus the privacy on unique behaviour and the personal space of the citizenry. Re- of the dwellers is not disturbed. The Iranian house cannot be seen searchers, working based on Hall’s classification, indicating Med- at once; the spaces organized in these houses are not visible in iterranean (contact groups) and northern European (non-contact one picture. One should enter the house, move inside it, and ac- groups) characteristics, supported his results and ideas through cess its various areas (Haeri Mazandarani, 2008) (Fig. 3). surveys they had undertaken (Watson, Graves 1966; Forston, Larson,1968; Little, Henderson, 1968; Sommer, 1968; Engebret- son, Fullmer, 1970; Evans, Howard, 1973; Hayduk, 1994; Sand- ers, Hakky, Brizzolara; 1985; Remland, Jones, Brinkman, 1995). Consistent with these studies, we can assume that the inhabitants of the northern parts of Iran, where the climate is mild and hu- mid, and the dwellers of central parts of Iran, where the weather is harsher and dryer, would differ in their privacy regulations. Ac- cording to the participants’ cultural background, the people who lived in the central parts of Iran with arid and semi-arid climate conditions would have higher privacy needs in their daily lives than the northern dwellers of Iran (Niay Gharaei, Rafieian, Jalalkamali, 2012). Privacy in Iranian traditional housing architecture The meaning of privacy in architectural space and urban planning is to embody the space in such a way that it has privacy from both physical and semantic aspects. Privacy in Iranian architecture comprises security and respect for others’ rights (Seyfian, Mahmudi, 2007). Having privacy in the area of the space is more focused on the principles that shape the security of the space and in the semantic area that brings dignity and value to the architec- tural space in such a way that a person can relax in it (Mah- dovinejad, Mashayikhi, 2010). According to the title, a space that physically has privacy, immunity, and security for the user can be considered confidential. Its spatial qualities are such that it pro- vides peace and comfort to the person. It is clear that visual secu- rity in this space is only part of its features, and the concept of comfort and relaxation includes a much larger scope. When a per- son chooses a person as their confidant, they consider the latter trustworthy, secretive, and an insider (Besim Selim, 2002). Therefore, we can state that privacy creates intimacy. The spatial configuration of a traditional residential house in Iran consists of public, semi-public, and private spaces – layers. Semi-public lay- Fig. 3. Interpreted privacy layers within traditional Iranian housing. Bor- ers are further divided into men‘s and women‘s social layers oujerdi House, Kashan, Iran. (Source: Nayyeri Fallah, Khalili, Rasdi, 2014) (Fig. 2). A simple application of two different types of knockers on the en- The following analyses show the principle of privacy application trance door allowed the house’s residents to recognize whether in traditional Iranian houses; it is necessary to mention that these the visitor was male or female. “The slot with low pitched sound 5 ALFA 1/2023 (Vol. 28) are originally the houses of middle-class Iranians. “The entrance of the house for guests to show the importance of guests for Ira- space is a place to stay, wait and converse. In some cases, there are nians and their hospitality rooted within them through the link- some platforms at the sides for sitting, which are used to welcome age of architecture and nature. Based on analyzing the data col- or companion the guests. In this regard, the entrance was built so lected from experts’ we can consider the next layer a semi-private that people would not directly and immediately enter the building. zone of the house, which includes a guest bedroom and men’s Thus, after entering the vestibule, they would enter a corridor workroom. This part of the house is a border between women’s placed on the sides of the vestibule and then enter the yard and social and private layers (Nayyeri Fallah, Khalili, Amp; Rasdi, other internal spaces of the building” (Nayyeri Fallah, Khalili, 2014). Thus, this border must be crossed to reach the house’s Tajjuddin, Rasdi, 2015) (Fig. 4). The second house privacy layer personal layer. A traditional Iranian housing space then contin- is a men’s social layer located after the public area. This part is ues with private layers (the innermost and completely confiden- mainly for men’s social communication. As such, based on obser- tial). Based on existing research, these layers are entirely for fam- vation and plan layout analysis, the corridor which connects the ily life, and strangers’ entering without permission into these ar- entrance to this space does not enable the view into the inside of eas is forbidden. According to the plan layout analysis of the se- the house. This part of the house usually includes two spaces for lected traditional case studies, the private layer involves three the prominent guests and their servants (this area’s name is levels (first floor, ground-, and underground floor) connected by Gholam Gozar in Iranian architectural elements). This way, the private stairs (Nayyeri Fallah, Khalili, Rasdi, 2014) (Fig. 5). These hierarchy principle based on social differences is strengthened parts of the house are not only the most distant from the outside, (Nayyeri Fallah, Khalili, Rasdi, 2014). but through using water, flowers, and trees in the inner court- yard, they represent symbolic heaven for the family part and help The men’s social layer is followed by the women’s social layer a family to enjoy a more desirable environment and climate around the house’s outdoor yard. This layer of the house has a (Nayyeri Fallah, Khalili, Rasdi, 2014). few sight limitations because of the users’ gender. Outdoor ser- vice spaces like an outdoor kitchen, sanitary areas, and food stor- age are inaccessible to men and women coming to the house’s so- cial layers. Iranian culture has tried to make desirable social parts Fig. 4. Analyzing the houses’ ground floor layers according to privacy. Borujerdi House, Kashan, Iran. (Source: Authors) 6 ALFA 1/2023 (Vol. 28) Fig. 5. Borujerdi House, the ground floor, first floor, and underground floor layouts, Kashan, Iran. (Source: Nosratpour, 2012) MATERIALS, DATA AND METHODS morphologically visible and understandable in different forms that have deep roots in Iranian cultural attitudes. It was strength- This research aims to identify the cultural values of traditional ened after the new philosophy of Islam and its formation of pri- Iranian housing in terms of privacy features. The data is a com- vacy (Omer, 2010). Regardless, it should be mentioned that the parison of literary sources and is illustrated through a mixed his- principle of introversion has also been applied in ancient archi- torical and qualitative research method, document studies, and tecture and has survived in residential architecture all over the observation. Based on historical and phenomenological analyses world to the present days. In the spatial configuration, it is mani- of Iranian vernacular architecture, this paper furthermore strives fested by a central courtyard to which the spaces of family life are to confront the privacy principle according to Iranian (or former oriented (Nayyeri Fallah, Khalili, Rasdi, 2014) (Fig. 6). Persian) culture, climate, and security conditions. Changed geo- political and cultural conditions in the 20th century helped raise new forms of architectural residential morphology, almost com- pletely negating the principle of privacy. The question is whether the vernacular principle of privacy should be embodied in the new design of Iranian residential houses or just be preserved as an expression of previous cultures and thus increasing the qual- ity of the image of the city and its attractiveness. The research completed by the qualitative morphological and analytical meth- ods seeks to clarify the mentioned principles to identify the defi- nition of privacy, the factors affecting it, the roots of its formation, its influence on the physical-spatial organization of traditional residential architecture in Iran, and its continuation in modern residential architecture in Iran. Main privacy principles in Iranian housing formation A. Introversion principle Fig. 6. The morphology of a central courtyard, Borujerdi House, Kashan, Iran. Phenomenological analysis vindicated this principle as a concept Interpretation of introverted architecture. (Source: Hosseini, Nik Eteghad, Uson, Armesto, 2015) that has existed in Iranian architecture as a specific value. It is 7 ALFA 1/2023 (Vol. 28) B. Hierarchy principle processes, transferring from one territory to another immedi- ately and without preparing the necessary conditions is undesir- Hierarchy (from Greek: hierarkhia) is a way of organizing a sys- able (Ardalan, Bakhtiar, 2000). Privacy limitations are the dis- tem in which every element, except for the highest one, is subor- tance between the most private solitude of the resident in the dinate to a single superior element. The principle of hierarchy house and the most public gathering of residents and relatives in causes the formation of spatial territories with a different func- the house in the form of intermediate and consecutive spaces. tion, meaning and importance, and morphology within spatial This criterion shapes the spatial hierarchy of the house (Haeri boundaries. The hierarchy in architecture is most often estab- Mazandarani, 2008). We can observe that Iranian traditional ar- lished through the use of unique shape, size, colour, strategic lo- chitecture has been significantly influenced by “the Design Value cation, or placement, which define the importance of the specific of Hierarchy as one of the main principles in the world” (Seyfian, space (Shah, 2017). It is essential to apply the principle of hierar- Mahmudi, 2007). Furthermore, “any universe object in the Islamic chy in spatial urban and architectural systems and distinguish worldview has a particular place and status whose value and the public spaces from private ones (Nayyeri Fallah, Khalili, Rasdi, characteristics of its hierarchy determine the status” (Naghizadeh, 2014) (Fig. 7). In this regard, when the elements of a building are 2000). divided into different parts with distinguishable frameworks and Fig. 7. Interpretation of hierarchical system of privacy in plan and section of Borujerdi house, Kashan, Iran. (Source: Eskandari, 2011, modified by authors) Formation of privacy factors in Iranian historical houses as protection against the expansion of the desert. The houses pos- sess an innate system of protection. They all have enclosed gar- Based on the morphological survey of traditional Iranian residen- dens with maximum privacy, preventing any view into the home tial architecture, we can consider two main elements affecting from the outside world (Fig. 8). privacy in Iranian vernacular architecture as indicated below: (i) Privacy principles according to culture and religion, (ii) Privacy Privacy principles according to Islamic rules principles according to climatic conditions. Another point worth The culture, religion, and art in Iran mixed with new factors after mentioning is the issue of security and freedom in the home en- the rise of Islam. The Islamization of Iran occurred due to vironment. A person in their private territory achieves a kind of the Muslim conquest of Persia in 633–654 AD. Traditional Ira- freedom and a sense of security. Vernacular Iranian architecture nian housing has been merged with religious rituals, principles, carries traces of protection against numerous invasions, as well 8 ALFA 1/2023 (Vol. 28) the spirit of thinking, traditions, characteristics, and the attitude 1. Regions with ‘approximately hot summers’ and ‘nearly cold of generations. Privacy, as an Islamic principle governing all as- winters’ accompanied by an incredible amount of humidity. pects of life, has formed traditional Iranian housing and has had 2. High mountainous regions with ‘mild summers’ and ‘frigid win- profound impacts on and outcomes in its spatial organization and ters’. function. In this regard, looking at the related verses of the Quran, the features of privacy from the Islamic perspective are under- 3. Nearly high mountainous regions, with ‘approximately hot stood as the most vital source of learning the principles which ex- summers’ and ‘almost cold winters’. plain different behaviours according to respecting other people’s privacy. According to Besim Selim (2002), Islamic principles 4. Low mountainous regions, with warmer summers and winters, state some points on how to enter a house and ask for permission. compared to the third group. Furthermore, they rule the intimate behavioural and verbal man- 5. Regions primarily located in central Iran, with ‘arid-hot sum- ners of people living together in the same house, and thus manage mers’ and ‘cold winters’. approaches to consider the design of the spaces and house mor- phology (Nayyeri Fallah, Khalili, Rasdi, 2014). The religion of Is- 6. The borders of the Central Desert (Dasht-e Kavir) with extreme lam has clear instructions in this regard as well, and many holy hot-arid summers and ‘nearly cold winters’. In these areas, principles have been narrated from Islam’s prophet and his sib- achieving human comfort, especially in the hot season, could be lings, where even the most minor points are mentioned about very difficult. how to knock on the door, how to get permission, and how to en- ter them. It is quite evident that the relevant Iranian Muslim ar- 7. Regions with very hot and semi-dry summers and moderate chitect has also tried the best way to embody these points. winters. 8. Coastlines and islands of the Persian Gulf and Oman Sea, which are very hot and humid in summer and moderate in winter. In this climatic area, hot and humid weather condition makes it challenging to achieve thermal human comfort (Haghparast, Ni- roumand, 2007). Two regions from groups 5 and 6 were selected for this study. The air temperature in these regions ranges between 40–45°C and a minimum of 0–5 °C. Total precipitation is meagre, relative humidity is under 30%, with a clear sky during the summer days. In addition, the dusty wind is an essential factor in these unstable regions (Khalili, Amindeldar, 2014). Climatic issues have always posed serious problems for residents of these regions. Over thousands of years, people were driven to find astonishing solutions to reduce the disturbing aspects of the climate and make use of its convenient aspects, in passive design approaches for dry and hot regions. Such efforts engendered con- structional patterns which interact with the nature rather than conflict with it, bringing the benefit of minimized amount of arti- ficial lighting and required cooling. Hence, constructional pat- terns taking advantage of climatic elements and the environment to produce traditional architecture providing quality and com- fort, play a significant role in eliminating the need of high energy consumption. (Khalili, Amindeldar, 2014) We can observe brilliant morphological solutions developed in such difficult climatic conditions to provide thermal comfort in Iranian vernacular architecture. Building orientation, methods of communication with the ground and underground, introversion and closure, wall thickness, the height of rooms, and applied ma- terials confirm the maturity of the traditional builder's respect to and semiotics with the environment (Khalili, Amindeldar, 2014). Some research studies have proved that spatial proportions, the Fig. 8. Spatial arrangement in Sharifian House, Kashan, Iran. (Source: dimensions of the main structures, and even construction details Eskandari, 2011, modified by authors) are based on very precise methods and calculations (Afshar- Naderi, 2003). The most important of them providing residential comfort conditions are: Privacy principles according to climatic conditions Iran lies in a warm climatic district between 25◦ and 40◦ latitude. - Enclosed yard; The deserts of northern Africa and Saudi Arabia extend from the - Vaults, domes, and air vents; Atlantic Ocean in western Africa across Iran and end in Afghani- - Using water and vegetation; stan and Turkmenistan (Keshtkaran, 2011). Iran has eight differ- - Semi-open spaces (veranda or Ivan); ent kinds of climatic regions, as follows (Khalili, Amindeldar, - Wind tower (Badgir); 2014): - Wall thickness, height, and material; 9 ALFA 1/2023 (Vol. 28) - Multiple-layer ceiling; Tab. 1, 2, and Fig. 9 show the variable strategies of climatic ap- - Openings; proaches in Iranian vernacular architecture in the mentioned - Using underground spaces for cooling; parts of Iran. As evident, the strategies used in plan design and - Using natural light to the greatest extent; supported climatic architectural approaches act in harmony with - Using service areas as temperature filters; introversion and hierarchy in reaching the house’s private zone - Using entrance filter. and separating it from the public area. Tab. 1. Summary of 7 climatic strategies: summary of climatic approaches in Iranian vernacular residential architecture that were used in hot and dry regions. (Source: Saljoughinejad, Rashidi Sharifabad, 2015, modified by authors) 10 ALFA 1/2023 (Vol. 28) Tab. 2. Summary of 7 climatic strategies: summary of climatic approaches in Iranian vernacular residential architecture that were used in hot and dry regions. (Source: Saljoughinejad, Rashidi Sharifabad, 2015, modified by authors) 11 ALFA 1/2023 (Vol. 28) Fig. 9. Climatic strategies classification in the hot and dry region. (Source: Saljoughinejad, Rashidi Sharifabad, 2015) BASIC MORPHOLOGICAL ELEMENTS OF IRANIAN HOUSE Among the basic morphological elements of the public and social layers in the traditional Iranian house for middle class residents are: Entrance and main door The territory of an Iranian house starts at the outside of the Fig. 10. Gender differentiation by the type of door knockers in traditional Ira- house; the public gradually turns into privacy. Until reaching the nian houses. (Source: Raviz, Eteghad, Guardiola, Aira, 2015) inside of the house (courtyard), successive spaces of ‘pause and Vestibule passage’ are created. A dedicated space is designed to enter the house, and the concept of privacy and public is reflected in this After passing through the entrance, upon entering the house, the space; different paths are provided to enter each of these territo- visitor should stop in a space offering the possibility of pausing. ries from within this space. The house’s entrance uses architec- The entrance sections are dimmed and cooler compared to the ture to fit the purpose and preserve relevant traditions. The en- passage space. It has a welcoming and relaxing atmosphere; peo- trance space is part of a sequence of interconnected and related ple can stay and talk if needed. The area usually comes in a areas of the whole house. When entering the building in front of square, rectangular, or octagonal shape. The door takes a differ- the house, they are both an ‘obstacle’ to entering the non-public ent height. The vestibule is the first space of the Iranian houses premises in house and a place to welcome semi-familiar guests. that anyone enters; intended to help reduce fatigue and rest until The greetings are exchanged here, and passers-by may some- we know which room to go to. There are one or more doors, one times take a short stop to relieve fatigue and use its shade. The or more routes in or from the vestibule; one path goes to the up- entrance is still a bridge between the privacy of the house, the per house. This way is for those who will not enter the house and street, and the neighbourhood (Kateb, 2005) (Fig. 10). the courtyards. One track goes to the yard through the hallway (Haeri Mazandarani, 2008) (Fig. 11). 12 ALFA 1/2023 (Vol. 28) Courtyard After entering the vestibule, on the way to the corridor, follows the courtyard. The hallway that connects the vestibule to the courtyard is half-dark. The space gradually brightens. A court- yard is a space without a roof with specific bodies, the fronts of the courtyard are formed by the facades of buildings and covered areas, and in the parts where there is no building, the wall plays an active role in defining the courtyard. Almost all the routes, stairs, steps, rooms, and cellars are connected to it (Haeri Ma- zandarani, 2008). The yard composition in traditional houses is consistent with the variety of physical and spiritual needs. These needs also explain the relationship between the private and pub- lic sectors (Fig. 13). Fig. 11. Aghazadeh Historical House, Yazd, Iran. (Source: left – Hosseini, Nik Eteghad, Uson, Armesto, 2015, right – Reza Haeri, 2012) Dalan (Corridor) The hallway is the most straightforward part of the entrance space, which provides communication and access between two places; a corridor indirectly leads to the courtyard. Typically, cor- ridors are physically narrow. Of course, their width is determined according to the function of the building and the number of users. The width of the corridors of mosques and large schools is, on average, between 2 and 3.5 meters, and the width of the corridors of tiny houses is, on average, about one meter (Mahdavinejad, Mansour Pour, Qeiderlou, 2013) (Fig. 12). Fig. 13. Ameriha Historical House, Kashan, Iran. (Source: Sarihi, 2015) DISCUSSION Identifying the influence of cultural, social, and climatic impacts clarifies the changes in Iranian historical architectural style. The analysis of them through key information instruments revealed that privacy is an inseparable principle in vernacular designing of residential buildings in arid and semi-arid parts of Iran. Fur- thermore, analyzing the effect of climatic approaches to bring along ventilation and passive cooling, which in turn could mini- mize the use of fossil energy in the historical architecture of Iran, shows the undeniable effect on the composition of privacy in de- signing plans. The mentioned approaches play a major role in the privacy shaping of traditional Iranian houses. Considering these two factors behind achieving privacy, the role of architectural el- ements in creating the required privacy effect in traditional Ira- nian houses is worth mentioning. The physical environment of traditional Iranian housing played an important part in achieving desired privacy for settled fami- lies. It means that in this context, the ability of architecture is one of the most focal parameters to enhance the quality of residents’ life. These parameters, like hierarchy and introversion, shape hu- man values, which are under the cultural understandings of resi- dents about housing and its quality in terms of privacy. Addition- ally, the research findings show that the spatial organization of the house is a complex mechanism to support residents' familiar life through very exact space differentiation, allowing people to have their personal and interpersonal territories. As a result, these territories created opportunities for residents to have bet- ter housing environments. Based on the plan layout analysis and interpretation, the findings indicate that middle-class Iranian traditional house consists of six Fig. 12. Corridors of traditional houses in Iran. (Source: Authors) different layers in terms of privacy. These layers are public, men’s social, women’s social, semi-private, private, and personal pri- vate (Fig. 14). Such spatial organization is the solution to answer 13 ALFA 1/2023 (Vol. 28) residents’ higher needs based on their cultural values. (Nayyeri Fallah, Khalili, Tajjuddin, Rasdi, 2015) Fig. 14. Spatial organization and privacy hierarchy in Tabatabaei House – Kashan, Iran. (Source: Eskandari, 2011, modified by authors) Among all the constituting features of privacy, religious or cli- CONCLUSION matic, a specific architectural morphology can be observed, de- veloped and blessed by both these compelling reasons. Changed It can be stated that the climatic approaches and striving for sus- th tainable design, together with cultural background, family life- geopolitical and cultural conditions in the 20 century raised new forms of architectural residential morphology, almost com- style, the pattern of social relations, and behavioural criteria of pletely negating the principle of privacy. There are ongoing dis- Iranians, have been essential and practical principles for ensur- cussions (Masoud, 2020) whether the vernacular principle of pri- ing privacy in traditional Iranian homes. Based on many pieces of vacy should be embodied in the new design of Iranian residential research, the origin of privacy principles in Iranian vernacular houses or just be preserved as an expression of ancient culture, residential architecture was attributed to Islamic rules, but as we and thus increasing the quality of the image of the city and its at- investigated in this paper, not only is privacy caused by religion tractiveness. Many modern Iranian architects (Apcar, Forughi, but also by security reasons and climatic design measures. Though it is undeniable that after Islam, privacy rules have been Sadeq, Vartan...) promote modernist principles in their designs of residential architecture with the application of new materials, considered more than before. However, changes in the way of life, structures, and layouts; with the principle of privacy being signif- social, and cultural spheres led to the need to reassess the sus- icantly limited. tainability of the privacy principle being strictly applied in resi- dential architecture in Iran. The contemporary residential architecture of Iran extensively State policies that supported women's education and employ- adopts the features of global modern architecture without con- sidering the roots of ancestors’ deep creative attitudes. It experi- ment in the last century freed women from households and sup- ences mass construction mainly because of the population explo- ported their aspirations for modern housing. We can observe that sion. Based on analyzed data, housing spaces consist of the pre- contemporary people desire to reveal, express, and expose them- entrance area, entrance space, kitchen, living room, sanitary selves to others. It is as if people no longer have many things to hide that require high walls and fences in the house, and that they space and bathroom, and bedroom(s) (Fig. 15, 16). In most cases, there are no men’s social layers. The residents of modern middle- will only worry about the loss of property and material assets in- class housing no longer have such a range of privacy like in the side the house, and not about social relations, privacy, or human values. This is because a "global citizen" is born in one place, stud- past. The modern housing layout reflects the social, cultural, and economic changes in the life of the inhabitants of Iranian cities ies in another, and works in different lands. Therefore, the con- cept of home, paternal home, ancestral land, homeland, and pri- and neglects traditional cultural values. 14 ALFA 1/2023 (Vol. 28) vate home will no longer evoke that traditional concept in them. Knowing that the relationship between housing and culture will Due to the emergence of a kind of uniformity and homogenization never be the same as in the past, a new logic and research should in the culture of houses, “global citizens” will probably forget the be established on how to preserve and evolve the native architec- native architectural cultures. At the same time, one should know tural culture in different regions of the country by creating a re- and respect the local styles of architecture and house building. lationship of another kind. Fig. 15: Analyzing the middle-class modern Iranian housing from the aspect of privacy, Shiraz, Iran, 2009. (Source: Authors) Fig. 16: Analyzing the middle-class modern Iranian housing from the aspect of privacy, Tehran, Iran, 2014. (Source: Authors) 15 ALFA 1/2023 (Vol. 28) ture of Tehran’, In: ‘Contemporary identity in DC‘s of great city of Teh- References ran’, Tehran Beautification Press, Tehran, Iran. ISBN 9786007048498. (in Persian) Afshar-Naderi, K. (2003) ‘Iranian Architecture & Monuments, Iranian Archi- Mahdovinejad, M., Mashayikhi, M. (2010) ‘Mosque design requirements tecture Today, A Bridge Between East and West’, Iran Chamber Society. based on cultural-social functions’, Armanshahr scientific-research bian- [online] Available at: https://www.iranchamber.com/architecture/arti- nual, 5, pp. 56-59. (in Persian) cles/iranian_architecture_today2.php Masoud, A. B. (2020) ‘Contemporary Architecture in Iran: from 1925 to the Altman, I. (1975) ‘The environment and social behavior’, Brooks Cole, Monte- present’. [online] Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publica- rey, California, USA. tion/342216429_Contemporary_Architec- Altman, I., Chemers, M. (1980) ‘Culture and Environment’, Cambridge univer- ture_in_Iran_from_1925_to_the_present. ISBN: 979-8620711642 sity press, Cambridge, United Kingdom. ISBN 9780521319706 Muassasah i Jughrafiay i va Kartugrafi i Sahab (1972) ‘Naqdhe bioclimatic Ardalan, N., Bakhtiar, L. (2000) ‘The Sense of Unity: The Sufi Tradition in Per- Iran = Bioclimatic map of Iran’, David Rumsey Map Collection. [online] sian Architecture’ (2nd ed), Kazi Publications, Chicago, USA, p. 150. Available at: https://www.davidrumsey.com/luna/servlet/detail/RUM- Besim Selim, H. (2002) ‘Arabic-Islamic cities, principles of urban planning SEY~8~1~318289~90087050# and construction’, Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance, Tehran, Iran Naghizadeh, M. (2000) ‘Hierarchical wisdom in architecture and urban plan- [in Persian] ning. Collection of essays of the second congress on the history of archi- Emami, H. (2011) ‘Linking Traditional Architecture with Wisdom’, Infor- tecture and urban planning’, In: ‘Contemporary identity in DC‘s of great mation on Wisdom and Knowledge, 6(9), pp. 4-8. (in Persian) city of Tehran’, Tehran Beautification Press, Tehran, Iran. ISBN Engebretson, D., Fullmer, D. (1970) ‘Cross-cultural differences in territorial- 9786007048498 (in Persian) ity: Interaction distances of native Japanese, Hawaii Japanese, and Amer- Nasrollahi, F. (2009) ‘Climate and energy responsive housing in continental ican Caucasians’, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 1(3), pp. 261-269. climates’, TU Berlin, Germany, p. 279. ISBN 978 3 7983 2144 1 https://doi.org/10.1177/135910457000100305 Nayyeri Fallah, S., Khalili, A., Rasdi, M. T. B. M. (2014) ‘Cultural Dimensions of Eskandari, P. (2011) ‘Analysis of Traditional Iranian Houses of Kashan, Iran Housing Entrance Spaces: Lessons for Modern HDVD Housing’, Journal of in Terms of Space Organization and Access Design’, Eastern Mediterra- Applied Sciences, 15(2), pp. 173-183. [online] Available at: https://scial- nean University, Gazimagusa, North Cyprus. [online] Available at: ert.net/abstract/?doi=jas.2015.173.183 http://www.secheresse.info/spip.php?article73735 Nayyeri Fallah, S., Khalili, A., Tajjuddin, M., Rasdi, M. (2015) ‘Privacy as a cul- Evans, G. W., Howard, R. B. (1973) ‘Personal space’, Psychological Bulletin, tural value in traditional Iranian housing; Lessons for modern Iranian 80(4), pp. 334-344. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0034946 high density vertical development (HDVD) housing’, International Jour- Forston, R. L., Larson, C. U. (1968) ‘The dynamics of space’, Journal of Com- nal of Architectural Research, Archnet-IJAR, 9(1), pp. 198-216. munication, 18(2), pp. 109-116. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460- https://www.doi.org/10.26687/ARCHNET-IJAR.V9I1.324 2466.1968.tb00061.x Niay Gharaei, F. M., Rafieian, M., Jalalkamali, N. (2012) ‘Investigating Cross- Gifford, R. (2002) ‘Environmental psychology: Principles and practice’, Opti- Cultural Differences in the Privacy Regulation and Perception of Crowd- mal Books, Colville, Washington, USA, pp. 109-116. ing: Northern and Yazdi Women in Iran’, Procedia – Social and Behav- Givoni, B. (1976) ‘Man, Climate and Architecture’ (2nd ed.), Van Nostrand ioral Sciences, 50, pp. 69-78. Reinhold, New York, USA. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.08.016 Haeri Mazandarani, M. (2008) ‘House, Culture, Nature’, Urban Planning and Nosratpour, D. (2012) ‘Evaluation of Traditional Iranian Houses and Match it Architecture Study Center, Tehran, Iran, pp. 116-131. (in Persian) with Modern Housing’, Semantic Scholar. [online] Available at: Haghparast, F., Niroumand, S. (2007) ‘Sustainability of climate-sensitive ele- https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Evaluation-of-Traditional-Ira- ments in hot-arid regions; case study: Boroujerdis’ house of Kashan’, In: nian-Houses-and-Match-Nosrat- 3rd IRCEC Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, pp. 90-97. pour/f1671ffdf9aa94326d981bd57debe7937af3cc54 Hall, E. T. (1959) ‘The silent language’, Doubleday, New York, USA. Omer, S. (2010) ‘Islam and housing’, A.S. Noordeen, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, Hall, E. T. (1966) ‘The hidden dimension’, Doubleday, New York, USA. ISBN p. 350. [online] Available at: http://irep.iium.edu.my/id/eprint/53. ISBN 978-0-385-08476-5 Hayduk, L. A. (1994) ‘Personal space: Understanding the simplex model’, Raviz, S.R., Eteghad, A.N., Guardiola, E.U., Aira, A.A. (2015) ‘Iranian courtyard Journal of Nonverbal Behaviour, 18, pp. 245-260. housing: The role of social and cultural patterns to reach the spatial for- https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02170028 mation in the light of an accentuated privacy’, ACE: Architecture, City, Hosseini, S. R., Nik Eteghad, A., Uson, E., Armesto, A. (2015) ‘Iranian court- and Environment, 10(29), pp. 11-30. [online] Available at: yard housing: The role of social and cultural patterns to reach the spatial https://raco.cat/index.php/ACE/article/view/301293 formation in the light of an accentuated privacy’, ACE: Architecture, City Remland, M. S., Jones, T. S., Brinkman, H. (1995) ‘Interpersonal distance, body and Environment, 10(29), pp. 11-30. DOI: 10.5821/ace.11.29.2653 orientation, and touch’, The Journal of Social Psychology, 135(3), pp. Hujjat, I. (2008) ‘Architectural education and the worthlessness of values’, 281-297. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.1995.9713958 Fine Arts – Architecture and Urbanism, 14(14), pp. 70-63. (in Persian) Reza Haeri, M., EIr. (2012) ‘KASHAN v. ARCHITECTURE (3) TRADITIONAL Joklová, V., Bacová, A. (2013) ‘Effective housing, methodical concepts for ur- ARCHITECTURE’, Encyclopaedia Iranica, XVI/1, pp. 21-33. [online] Avail- ban and architectural housing design’, In: Oikodomos. Innovating hous- able online at: http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kashan-v3-tradi- ing learning, Hogeschool voor Wetenschap, Gent, Belgium, pp. 200-211. tional-architecture Kateb, F. (2005) ‘Architecture of Iranian houses’, Ministry of Culture and Is- Saljoughinejad, S., Rashidi Sharifabad, S. (2015) ‘Classification of climatic lamic Guidance, p. 165. (in Persian) strategies, used in Iranian vernacular residences based on spatial con- Keshtkaran, P. (2011) ‘Harmonization between climate and architecture in stituent elements’, Building and Environment, 92, pp. 475-493. vernacular heritage: A case study in Yazd, Iran’, In: 2011 International https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2015.05.005 Conference on Green buildings and Sustainable Cities, Procedia Engi- Sanders, J. L., Hakky, U. M., Brizzolara, M. M. (1985) ‘Personal space amongst neering, 21, pp. 428-438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pro- Arabs and Americans’, International Journal of Psychology, 20(1), pp. 13- eng.2011.11.2035 17. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1464-066X.1985.tb00011.x Khalili, M., Amindeldar, S. (2014) ‘Traditional solutions in low-energy build- Sarihi, S. (2015) ‘Adaptable Architecture, Via Studying Iranian Vernacular Ar- ings of hot-arid regions of Iran’, Sustainable Cities and Society Journal, chitecture’, 1st International Conference on Human, Architecture, Civil 13, pp. 171-181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2014.05.008 Engineering and City, ICOHACC 2015, Tabriz, Iran. Lang, J. (1987) ‘Creating Architectural Theory: The role of the Behavioral Sci- Seyfian, M. K., Mahmudi, M. R. (2007) ‘Privacy in the Iranian Traditional Ar- ences in Environmental Design’, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, USA, chitecture’, Journal of Identity of City, 1(1), pp. 3-14. (in Persian) p. 352. ISBN 0442259816 Shah, M. (2017) ‘Importance of Hierarchy in Architecture’, GharPedia. Little, K. B., Henderson, C. (1968) ‘Value congruence and interaction dis- [online] Available at: https://gharpedia.com/blog/hierarchy-in-architec- tance’, Journal of Social Psychology, 113, pp. 41-51. ture/ Mahdavinejad, M. (2002) ‘Necessities of mosque design based on social cul- Sommer, R. (1968) ‘Intimacy ratings in five countries‘, International Journal tural functions’, Armanshahr Journal of Science & Research, 5. (in Per- of Psychology, 3(2), pp. 109-114. sian) https://doi.org/10.1080/00207596808247233 Mahdavinejad, M. (2004) ‘Islamic Art in challenge with contemporary con- Watson, O. M., Graves, T. D. (1966) ‘Quantitative research in proxemic behav- cepts and new horizons’, Journal of Fine Arts of the University of Tehran, ior’, American Anthropologist, 68(4), pp. 971-985. 12. (in Persian) https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1966.68.4.02a00070 Mahdavinejad, M., Mansour Pour, M., Qeiderlou, K. (2013) ‘Privacy in the model of native housing and its withdrawal in contemporary architec- http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png Architecture Papers of the Faculty of Architecture and Design STU de Gruyter

Investigating privacy principles’ formation in vernacular architecture of arid and semi-arid parts of Iran

Loading next page...
 
/lp/de-gruyter/investigating-privacy-principles-formation-in-vernacular-architecture-yiVLeK5mAE

References (13)

Publisher
de Gruyter
Copyright
© 2023 Aida Shayegani et al., published by Sciendo
eISSN
2729-7640
DOI
10.2478/alfa-2023-0002
Publisher site
See Article on Publisher Site

Abstract

Viera Joklová * Traditional Iranian architecture principles have deep roots in this region's culture, thoughts, and climatic conditions. Privacy, as one of these principles, which has ever reg- ulated all aspects of life, has been beautifully embodied in the vernacular residential ar- 1, 2 Slovak University of Technology, Faculty chitecture of Iran. It proved to have profound effects which resulted in a specific spatial of Architecture and Design, Institute of Urban organization of the house and the placement of various functions, either private or semi- Design and Planning, Bratislava, Slovakia private. Many research studies have claimed that privacy was an attribute of Islamic rules in Iranian architecture. Based on historical and phenomenological analyses of ver- *Corresponding author nacular Iranian architecture this paper strives to confront the privacy principle also ac- E-mail: viera.joklova@stuba.sk cording to Iranian (or former Persian) culture, climate, and security conditions. Changed Article information th geopolitical and cultural conditions in the 20 century raised new forms of architectural Sent: Oct 19, 2022 residential morphology almost completely negating the principle of privacy. The ques- Accepted: Mar 12, 2023 tion is whether the vernacular principle of privacy should be embodied in the new de- sign of Iranian residential houses or be preserved merely as an expression of former culture increasing the quality of the image of the city and its attractiveness. The research completed by qualitative morphological and analytical methods clarifies the mentioned principles and identifies the definition of privacy, the factors affecting it, the roots of its formation, its influence on the physical-spatial organization of traditional residential ar- chitecture in Iran, and its continuation in modern residential architecture in Iran. Keywords: privacy, climatic architecture, Iran, Islamic rules, vernacular residential architecture INTRODUCTION residences to confront harsh circumstances (Khalili, Amindeldar, 2014). Generally, structures in this region have been logically af- fected by nature and culture. As a result, unlike many modern fa- Throughout the history of humankind, vernacular residential ar- cilities, the traditional buildings in Iran are compatible with and chitecture has been constructed with regard to security issues have a harmonious relationship with the natural and cultural and local sources; its shapes and dispositions have been strongly conditions (Keshtkaran, 2011). determined by the utilization of local building materials, the cli- mate, and by the social and cultural conditions. “Vernacular ar- chitecture is a good example of intuitive building effectiveness” so Even in the pre-Islam era, Iranian architecture has paid particular as many variables – climate, materials, living styles, are effec- attention to preserving privacy in buildings, this can be perceived tively integrated in the architectural morphology (Joklová, Ba- in ancient Persepolis city structures or the Apadana principle. cová, 2013). Weather in the major part of the Iranian central plat- This phenomenon, in turn, has led many researchers to consider eau is hot and arid (Fig. 1), and many historic cities with valuable cultural-religious approaches and climate issues in their design architectural designs are located in this hot and arid region process (Mahdavinejad, 2004). Therefore, traditional architec- (Keshtkaran, 2011). Residential structures in these conditions ture can be viewed as a treasure full of concepts and human were characterized by narrow streets and dwelling units turned methods that have worked to pay attention to the security and inward. Narrow streets provided shade from the scorching sun comfort of the users of the building (Mahdavinejad, 2002). In gen- as well as greater protection from the expanding desert and en- eral, “buildings built by human hands are manifestations of his at- th emy raids. From the 7 century onwards, Iranian architecture titude towards the universe, which is based on the intellectual and was vastly influenced by the principles of Islamic rules, which social-cultural structure of the people of that society” (Emami, shaped buildings and the cities’ architecture. Besides, Iranian hot 2011). One of the essential principles that have been paid atten- and cold climatic regions require a significant amount of energy tion to in the traditional architecture of Iran is the principle of for heating, cooling, and ventilation. However, with the same cli- privacy, which is best used in all buildings, from vast and large matic conditions in the past, multiple effective strategies have public buildings to residential houses, and from urban public been used in vernacular ____________________________________ © 2023 Authors. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-International License (https://creativecommons.org/li- censes/by/4.0/). Published by the Faculty of Architecture and Design, Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Slovakia 3 ALFA 1/2023 (Vol. 28) spaces to semi-public spaces, which have been used more pri- separate the microclimate and indoor climate and thus influence vately (Seyfian, Mahmudi, 2007). “The architecture of the past re- the indoor climate significantly (Nasrollahi, 2009). lied on the dignity of man, honouring the position of a man who was the caliph of God on earth” (Hujjat, 2008). The desire for privacy is a general requirement but relates to var- iables such as culture, age, gender, personality, and situated fac- Indigenous housing in Iranian hot and dry climate has constantly tors (Hall, 1966; Altman, Chemers, 1980). This article explores provided thermal comfort for its residents, followed by the coor- how different conditions affect privacy formation, especially in dination of the construction principles according to climatic con- residential design. It is vital to recognize what privacy is and how ditions, environmental mitigation, and energy-saving solutions. it can affect the architecture, especially the layout of the plans, The microclimate of the area in which the building is constructed and placement of windows and doors. The research aims to sur- affects the indoor climate of a closed or architectural space. Cli- vey the principle of privacy, its historical and phenomenological mate and environmental conditions are critical parameters in a aspects and the manifestation in the vernacular residential archi- building design. Buildings are designed to achieve or create a tecture in Iran. The study defines the influence of cultural and re- suitable atmosphere for human comfort (Givoni, 1976). They ligious backgrounds as well as climatic conditions on Iranian ar- provide essential protection against the outdoor climate. Fur- chitectural style. It raises the questions about the sustainability thermore, they create an artificial indoor environment based on of this principle in modern architectural design in Iran. the surrounding microclimate. Architectural elements forming the thermal envelope, such as walls, windows, roofs, and floors, Fig. 1. Bioclimatic map of Iran. (Source: Muassasah i Jughrafiay i va Kartugrafi i Sahab, 1972; modified by authors) BACKGROUND Altman (1975) defines it as a process to justify the borders among people by a person who supervises their relationship. Ac- In general, we can state that privacy is the right to be let alone. It cording to Altman, privacy is a dialectic process built on two pow- is one of the main principles of residential architecture and one ers: “being with others” and “avoiding being with others.” Ac- of the essential rights of the individual. The layout of the apart- cording to Gifford’s (2002) definition, “privacy means selective ment or house has to offer spaces for the separation and sociali- control of access to self, either in person or in terms of information zation of an individual, family member or community. “Privacy is about oneself” (Niay Gharaei, Rafieian, Jalalkamali, 2012). It can a conventional process by that a person or group of people exposes be considered a preference, expectation, value, need, or behav- themselves to others” (Niay Gharaei, Rafieian, Jalalkamali, 2012). iour. Differences in privacy behaviour originate in personal char- 4 ALFA 1/2023 (Vol. 28) acteristics, social situations, physical settings, and culture. “Some was for men, and the one with high pitched sound was for women. This difference helped the house members and the one who opened people, because of their culture, personality, or other characteris- the door know the gender of the guests from the sound of the slot tics, require more privacy or express privacy needs differently from and be prepared to see them” (Nayyeri Fallah, Khalili, Rasdi, others. Certain social situations or physical settings, regardless of 2014). who is in them, engender different privacy needs” (Gifford, 2002; Altman, 1975; Hall, 1959). In other words, the person or the group chooses mechanisms based on the basis of age, gender, personality, cultural–social background, and situated factors to achieve desired privacy (Altman, Chemers, 1980; Lang, 1987; Niay Gharaei, Rafieian, Jalalkamali, 2012). Cultural influences on privacy The desire for privacy varies from one culture to another. Some cultures need more privacy than others (Altman, Chemers, 1980). According to this fact, Hall (1966) classified cultures into Fig. 2. Scheme of the spatial configuration of a traditional residential house in two different classes: contact and non-contact. Based on his stud- Iran. (Source: Authors) ies, the spatial behaviour of Mediterranean and northern Euro- pean people is significantly distinguishable; Mediterranean soci- The public layer as a boundary space with the public space of the eties prefer relatively interactive distances, while north Euro- street shows the spatial system of privacy from outside to inside pean institutions prefer greater interactive lengths. Hall’s studies the house. The public space of the house does not allow a view became the basis of subsequent research on the cultural effects into the internal semi-public or private spaces. Thus the privacy on unique behaviour and the personal space of the citizenry. Re- of the dwellers is not disturbed. The Iranian house cannot be seen searchers, working based on Hall’s classification, indicating Med- at once; the spaces organized in these houses are not visible in iterranean (contact groups) and northern European (non-contact one picture. One should enter the house, move inside it, and ac- groups) characteristics, supported his results and ideas through cess its various areas (Haeri Mazandarani, 2008) (Fig. 3). surveys they had undertaken (Watson, Graves 1966; Forston, Larson,1968; Little, Henderson, 1968; Sommer, 1968; Engebret- son, Fullmer, 1970; Evans, Howard, 1973; Hayduk, 1994; Sand- ers, Hakky, Brizzolara; 1985; Remland, Jones, Brinkman, 1995). Consistent with these studies, we can assume that the inhabitants of the northern parts of Iran, where the climate is mild and hu- mid, and the dwellers of central parts of Iran, where the weather is harsher and dryer, would differ in their privacy regulations. Ac- cording to the participants’ cultural background, the people who lived in the central parts of Iran with arid and semi-arid climate conditions would have higher privacy needs in their daily lives than the northern dwellers of Iran (Niay Gharaei, Rafieian, Jalalkamali, 2012). Privacy in Iranian traditional housing architecture The meaning of privacy in architectural space and urban planning is to embody the space in such a way that it has privacy from both physical and semantic aspects. Privacy in Iranian architecture comprises security and respect for others’ rights (Seyfian, Mahmudi, 2007). Having privacy in the area of the space is more focused on the principles that shape the security of the space and in the semantic area that brings dignity and value to the architec- tural space in such a way that a person can relax in it (Mah- dovinejad, Mashayikhi, 2010). According to the title, a space that physically has privacy, immunity, and security for the user can be considered confidential. Its spatial qualities are such that it pro- vides peace and comfort to the person. It is clear that visual secu- rity in this space is only part of its features, and the concept of comfort and relaxation includes a much larger scope. When a per- son chooses a person as their confidant, they consider the latter trustworthy, secretive, and an insider (Besim Selim, 2002). Therefore, we can state that privacy creates intimacy. The spatial configuration of a traditional residential house in Iran consists of public, semi-public, and private spaces – layers. Semi-public lay- Fig. 3. Interpreted privacy layers within traditional Iranian housing. Bor- ers are further divided into men‘s and women‘s social layers oujerdi House, Kashan, Iran. (Source: Nayyeri Fallah, Khalili, Rasdi, 2014) (Fig. 2). A simple application of two different types of knockers on the en- The following analyses show the principle of privacy application trance door allowed the house’s residents to recognize whether in traditional Iranian houses; it is necessary to mention that these the visitor was male or female. “The slot with low pitched sound 5 ALFA 1/2023 (Vol. 28) are originally the houses of middle-class Iranians. “The entrance of the house for guests to show the importance of guests for Ira- space is a place to stay, wait and converse. In some cases, there are nians and their hospitality rooted within them through the link- some platforms at the sides for sitting, which are used to welcome age of architecture and nature. Based on analyzing the data col- or companion the guests. In this regard, the entrance was built so lected from experts’ we can consider the next layer a semi-private that people would not directly and immediately enter the building. zone of the house, which includes a guest bedroom and men’s Thus, after entering the vestibule, they would enter a corridor workroom. This part of the house is a border between women’s placed on the sides of the vestibule and then enter the yard and social and private layers (Nayyeri Fallah, Khalili, Amp; Rasdi, other internal spaces of the building” (Nayyeri Fallah, Khalili, 2014). Thus, this border must be crossed to reach the house’s Tajjuddin, Rasdi, 2015) (Fig. 4). The second house privacy layer personal layer. A traditional Iranian housing space then contin- is a men’s social layer located after the public area. This part is ues with private layers (the innermost and completely confiden- mainly for men’s social communication. As such, based on obser- tial). Based on existing research, these layers are entirely for fam- vation and plan layout analysis, the corridor which connects the ily life, and strangers’ entering without permission into these ar- entrance to this space does not enable the view into the inside of eas is forbidden. According to the plan layout analysis of the se- the house. This part of the house usually includes two spaces for lected traditional case studies, the private layer involves three the prominent guests and their servants (this area’s name is levels (first floor, ground-, and underground floor) connected by Gholam Gozar in Iranian architectural elements). This way, the private stairs (Nayyeri Fallah, Khalili, Rasdi, 2014) (Fig. 5). These hierarchy principle based on social differences is strengthened parts of the house are not only the most distant from the outside, (Nayyeri Fallah, Khalili, Rasdi, 2014). but through using water, flowers, and trees in the inner court- yard, they represent symbolic heaven for the family part and help The men’s social layer is followed by the women’s social layer a family to enjoy a more desirable environment and climate around the house’s outdoor yard. This layer of the house has a (Nayyeri Fallah, Khalili, Rasdi, 2014). few sight limitations because of the users’ gender. Outdoor ser- vice spaces like an outdoor kitchen, sanitary areas, and food stor- age are inaccessible to men and women coming to the house’s so- cial layers. Iranian culture has tried to make desirable social parts Fig. 4. Analyzing the houses’ ground floor layers according to privacy. Borujerdi House, Kashan, Iran. (Source: Authors) 6 ALFA 1/2023 (Vol. 28) Fig. 5. Borujerdi House, the ground floor, first floor, and underground floor layouts, Kashan, Iran. (Source: Nosratpour, 2012) MATERIALS, DATA AND METHODS morphologically visible and understandable in different forms that have deep roots in Iranian cultural attitudes. It was strength- This research aims to identify the cultural values of traditional ened after the new philosophy of Islam and its formation of pri- Iranian housing in terms of privacy features. The data is a com- vacy (Omer, 2010). Regardless, it should be mentioned that the parison of literary sources and is illustrated through a mixed his- principle of introversion has also been applied in ancient archi- torical and qualitative research method, document studies, and tecture and has survived in residential architecture all over the observation. Based on historical and phenomenological analyses world to the present days. In the spatial configuration, it is mani- of Iranian vernacular architecture, this paper furthermore strives fested by a central courtyard to which the spaces of family life are to confront the privacy principle according to Iranian (or former oriented (Nayyeri Fallah, Khalili, Rasdi, 2014) (Fig. 6). Persian) culture, climate, and security conditions. Changed geo- political and cultural conditions in the 20th century helped raise new forms of architectural residential morphology, almost com- pletely negating the principle of privacy. The question is whether the vernacular principle of privacy should be embodied in the new design of Iranian residential houses or just be preserved as an expression of previous cultures and thus increasing the qual- ity of the image of the city and its attractiveness. The research completed by the qualitative morphological and analytical meth- ods seeks to clarify the mentioned principles to identify the defi- nition of privacy, the factors affecting it, the roots of its formation, its influence on the physical-spatial organization of traditional residential architecture in Iran, and its continuation in modern residential architecture in Iran. Main privacy principles in Iranian housing formation A. Introversion principle Fig. 6. The morphology of a central courtyard, Borujerdi House, Kashan, Iran. Phenomenological analysis vindicated this principle as a concept Interpretation of introverted architecture. (Source: Hosseini, Nik Eteghad, Uson, Armesto, 2015) that has existed in Iranian architecture as a specific value. It is 7 ALFA 1/2023 (Vol. 28) B. Hierarchy principle processes, transferring from one territory to another immedi- ately and without preparing the necessary conditions is undesir- Hierarchy (from Greek: hierarkhia) is a way of organizing a sys- able (Ardalan, Bakhtiar, 2000). Privacy limitations are the dis- tem in which every element, except for the highest one, is subor- tance between the most private solitude of the resident in the dinate to a single superior element. The principle of hierarchy house and the most public gathering of residents and relatives in causes the formation of spatial territories with a different func- the house in the form of intermediate and consecutive spaces. tion, meaning and importance, and morphology within spatial This criterion shapes the spatial hierarchy of the house (Haeri boundaries. The hierarchy in architecture is most often estab- Mazandarani, 2008). We can observe that Iranian traditional ar- lished through the use of unique shape, size, colour, strategic lo- chitecture has been significantly influenced by “the Design Value cation, or placement, which define the importance of the specific of Hierarchy as one of the main principles in the world” (Seyfian, space (Shah, 2017). It is essential to apply the principle of hierar- Mahmudi, 2007). Furthermore, “any universe object in the Islamic chy in spatial urban and architectural systems and distinguish worldview has a particular place and status whose value and the public spaces from private ones (Nayyeri Fallah, Khalili, Rasdi, characteristics of its hierarchy determine the status” (Naghizadeh, 2014) (Fig. 7). In this regard, when the elements of a building are 2000). divided into different parts with distinguishable frameworks and Fig. 7. Interpretation of hierarchical system of privacy in plan and section of Borujerdi house, Kashan, Iran. (Source: Eskandari, 2011, modified by authors) Formation of privacy factors in Iranian historical houses as protection against the expansion of the desert. The houses pos- sess an innate system of protection. They all have enclosed gar- Based on the morphological survey of traditional Iranian residen- dens with maximum privacy, preventing any view into the home tial architecture, we can consider two main elements affecting from the outside world (Fig. 8). privacy in Iranian vernacular architecture as indicated below: (i) Privacy principles according to culture and religion, (ii) Privacy Privacy principles according to Islamic rules principles according to climatic conditions. Another point worth The culture, religion, and art in Iran mixed with new factors after mentioning is the issue of security and freedom in the home en- the rise of Islam. The Islamization of Iran occurred due to vironment. A person in their private territory achieves a kind of the Muslim conquest of Persia in 633–654 AD. Traditional Ira- freedom and a sense of security. Vernacular Iranian architecture nian housing has been merged with religious rituals, principles, carries traces of protection against numerous invasions, as well 8 ALFA 1/2023 (Vol. 28) the spirit of thinking, traditions, characteristics, and the attitude 1. Regions with ‘approximately hot summers’ and ‘nearly cold of generations. Privacy, as an Islamic principle governing all as- winters’ accompanied by an incredible amount of humidity. pects of life, has formed traditional Iranian housing and has had 2. High mountainous regions with ‘mild summers’ and ‘frigid win- profound impacts on and outcomes in its spatial organization and ters’. function. In this regard, looking at the related verses of the Quran, the features of privacy from the Islamic perspective are under- 3. Nearly high mountainous regions, with ‘approximately hot stood as the most vital source of learning the principles which ex- summers’ and ‘almost cold winters’. plain different behaviours according to respecting other people’s privacy. According to Besim Selim (2002), Islamic principles 4. Low mountainous regions, with warmer summers and winters, state some points on how to enter a house and ask for permission. compared to the third group. Furthermore, they rule the intimate behavioural and verbal man- 5. Regions primarily located in central Iran, with ‘arid-hot sum- ners of people living together in the same house, and thus manage mers’ and ‘cold winters’. approaches to consider the design of the spaces and house mor- phology (Nayyeri Fallah, Khalili, Rasdi, 2014). The religion of Is- 6. The borders of the Central Desert (Dasht-e Kavir) with extreme lam has clear instructions in this regard as well, and many holy hot-arid summers and ‘nearly cold winters’. In these areas, principles have been narrated from Islam’s prophet and his sib- achieving human comfort, especially in the hot season, could be lings, where even the most minor points are mentioned about very difficult. how to knock on the door, how to get permission, and how to en- ter them. It is quite evident that the relevant Iranian Muslim ar- 7. Regions with very hot and semi-dry summers and moderate chitect has also tried the best way to embody these points. winters. 8. Coastlines and islands of the Persian Gulf and Oman Sea, which are very hot and humid in summer and moderate in winter. In this climatic area, hot and humid weather condition makes it challenging to achieve thermal human comfort (Haghparast, Ni- roumand, 2007). Two regions from groups 5 and 6 were selected for this study. The air temperature in these regions ranges between 40–45°C and a minimum of 0–5 °C. Total precipitation is meagre, relative humidity is under 30%, with a clear sky during the summer days. In addition, the dusty wind is an essential factor in these unstable regions (Khalili, Amindeldar, 2014). Climatic issues have always posed serious problems for residents of these regions. Over thousands of years, people were driven to find astonishing solutions to reduce the disturbing aspects of the climate and make use of its convenient aspects, in passive design approaches for dry and hot regions. Such efforts engendered con- structional patterns which interact with the nature rather than conflict with it, bringing the benefit of minimized amount of arti- ficial lighting and required cooling. Hence, constructional pat- terns taking advantage of climatic elements and the environment to produce traditional architecture providing quality and com- fort, play a significant role in eliminating the need of high energy consumption. (Khalili, Amindeldar, 2014) We can observe brilliant morphological solutions developed in such difficult climatic conditions to provide thermal comfort in Iranian vernacular architecture. Building orientation, methods of communication with the ground and underground, introversion and closure, wall thickness, the height of rooms, and applied ma- terials confirm the maturity of the traditional builder's respect to and semiotics with the environment (Khalili, Amindeldar, 2014). Some research studies have proved that spatial proportions, the Fig. 8. Spatial arrangement in Sharifian House, Kashan, Iran. (Source: dimensions of the main structures, and even construction details Eskandari, 2011, modified by authors) are based on very precise methods and calculations (Afshar- Naderi, 2003). The most important of them providing residential comfort conditions are: Privacy principles according to climatic conditions Iran lies in a warm climatic district between 25◦ and 40◦ latitude. - Enclosed yard; The deserts of northern Africa and Saudi Arabia extend from the - Vaults, domes, and air vents; Atlantic Ocean in western Africa across Iran and end in Afghani- - Using water and vegetation; stan and Turkmenistan (Keshtkaran, 2011). Iran has eight differ- - Semi-open spaces (veranda or Ivan); ent kinds of climatic regions, as follows (Khalili, Amindeldar, - Wind tower (Badgir); 2014): - Wall thickness, height, and material; 9 ALFA 1/2023 (Vol. 28) - Multiple-layer ceiling; Tab. 1, 2, and Fig. 9 show the variable strategies of climatic ap- - Openings; proaches in Iranian vernacular architecture in the mentioned - Using underground spaces for cooling; parts of Iran. As evident, the strategies used in plan design and - Using natural light to the greatest extent; supported climatic architectural approaches act in harmony with - Using service areas as temperature filters; introversion and hierarchy in reaching the house’s private zone - Using entrance filter. and separating it from the public area. Tab. 1. Summary of 7 climatic strategies: summary of climatic approaches in Iranian vernacular residential architecture that were used in hot and dry regions. (Source: Saljoughinejad, Rashidi Sharifabad, 2015, modified by authors) 10 ALFA 1/2023 (Vol. 28) Tab. 2. Summary of 7 climatic strategies: summary of climatic approaches in Iranian vernacular residential architecture that were used in hot and dry regions. (Source: Saljoughinejad, Rashidi Sharifabad, 2015, modified by authors) 11 ALFA 1/2023 (Vol. 28) Fig. 9. Climatic strategies classification in the hot and dry region. (Source: Saljoughinejad, Rashidi Sharifabad, 2015) BASIC MORPHOLOGICAL ELEMENTS OF IRANIAN HOUSE Among the basic morphological elements of the public and social layers in the traditional Iranian house for middle class residents are: Entrance and main door The territory of an Iranian house starts at the outside of the Fig. 10. Gender differentiation by the type of door knockers in traditional Ira- house; the public gradually turns into privacy. Until reaching the nian houses. (Source: Raviz, Eteghad, Guardiola, Aira, 2015) inside of the house (courtyard), successive spaces of ‘pause and Vestibule passage’ are created. A dedicated space is designed to enter the house, and the concept of privacy and public is reflected in this After passing through the entrance, upon entering the house, the space; different paths are provided to enter each of these territo- visitor should stop in a space offering the possibility of pausing. ries from within this space. The house’s entrance uses architec- The entrance sections are dimmed and cooler compared to the ture to fit the purpose and preserve relevant traditions. The en- passage space. It has a welcoming and relaxing atmosphere; peo- trance space is part of a sequence of interconnected and related ple can stay and talk if needed. The area usually comes in a areas of the whole house. When entering the building in front of square, rectangular, or octagonal shape. The door takes a differ- the house, they are both an ‘obstacle’ to entering the non-public ent height. The vestibule is the first space of the Iranian houses premises in house and a place to welcome semi-familiar guests. that anyone enters; intended to help reduce fatigue and rest until The greetings are exchanged here, and passers-by may some- we know which room to go to. There are one or more doors, one times take a short stop to relieve fatigue and use its shade. The or more routes in or from the vestibule; one path goes to the up- entrance is still a bridge between the privacy of the house, the per house. This way is for those who will not enter the house and street, and the neighbourhood (Kateb, 2005) (Fig. 10). the courtyards. One track goes to the yard through the hallway (Haeri Mazandarani, 2008) (Fig. 11). 12 ALFA 1/2023 (Vol. 28) Courtyard After entering the vestibule, on the way to the corridor, follows the courtyard. The hallway that connects the vestibule to the courtyard is half-dark. The space gradually brightens. A court- yard is a space without a roof with specific bodies, the fronts of the courtyard are formed by the facades of buildings and covered areas, and in the parts where there is no building, the wall plays an active role in defining the courtyard. Almost all the routes, stairs, steps, rooms, and cellars are connected to it (Haeri Ma- zandarani, 2008). The yard composition in traditional houses is consistent with the variety of physical and spiritual needs. These needs also explain the relationship between the private and pub- lic sectors (Fig. 13). Fig. 11. Aghazadeh Historical House, Yazd, Iran. (Source: left – Hosseini, Nik Eteghad, Uson, Armesto, 2015, right – Reza Haeri, 2012) Dalan (Corridor) The hallway is the most straightforward part of the entrance space, which provides communication and access between two places; a corridor indirectly leads to the courtyard. Typically, cor- ridors are physically narrow. Of course, their width is determined according to the function of the building and the number of users. The width of the corridors of mosques and large schools is, on average, between 2 and 3.5 meters, and the width of the corridors of tiny houses is, on average, about one meter (Mahdavinejad, Mansour Pour, Qeiderlou, 2013) (Fig. 12). Fig. 13. Ameriha Historical House, Kashan, Iran. (Source: Sarihi, 2015) DISCUSSION Identifying the influence of cultural, social, and climatic impacts clarifies the changes in Iranian historical architectural style. The analysis of them through key information instruments revealed that privacy is an inseparable principle in vernacular designing of residential buildings in arid and semi-arid parts of Iran. Fur- thermore, analyzing the effect of climatic approaches to bring along ventilation and passive cooling, which in turn could mini- mize the use of fossil energy in the historical architecture of Iran, shows the undeniable effect on the composition of privacy in de- signing plans. The mentioned approaches play a major role in the privacy shaping of traditional Iranian houses. Considering these two factors behind achieving privacy, the role of architectural el- ements in creating the required privacy effect in traditional Ira- nian houses is worth mentioning. The physical environment of traditional Iranian housing played an important part in achieving desired privacy for settled fami- lies. It means that in this context, the ability of architecture is one of the most focal parameters to enhance the quality of residents’ life. These parameters, like hierarchy and introversion, shape hu- man values, which are under the cultural understandings of resi- dents about housing and its quality in terms of privacy. Addition- ally, the research findings show that the spatial organization of the house is a complex mechanism to support residents' familiar life through very exact space differentiation, allowing people to have their personal and interpersonal territories. As a result, these territories created opportunities for residents to have bet- ter housing environments. Based on the plan layout analysis and interpretation, the findings indicate that middle-class Iranian traditional house consists of six Fig. 12. Corridors of traditional houses in Iran. (Source: Authors) different layers in terms of privacy. These layers are public, men’s social, women’s social, semi-private, private, and personal pri- vate (Fig. 14). Such spatial organization is the solution to answer 13 ALFA 1/2023 (Vol. 28) residents’ higher needs based on their cultural values. (Nayyeri Fallah, Khalili, Tajjuddin, Rasdi, 2015) Fig. 14. Spatial organization and privacy hierarchy in Tabatabaei House – Kashan, Iran. (Source: Eskandari, 2011, modified by authors) Among all the constituting features of privacy, religious or cli- CONCLUSION matic, a specific architectural morphology can be observed, de- veloped and blessed by both these compelling reasons. Changed It can be stated that the climatic approaches and striving for sus- th tainable design, together with cultural background, family life- geopolitical and cultural conditions in the 20 century raised new forms of architectural residential morphology, almost com- style, the pattern of social relations, and behavioural criteria of pletely negating the principle of privacy. There are ongoing dis- Iranians, have been essential and practical principles for ensur- cussions (Masoud, 2020) whether the vernacular principle of pri- ing privacy in traditional Iranian homes. Based on many pieces of vacy should be embodied in the new design of Iranian residential research, the origin of privacy principles in Iranian vernacular houses or just be preserved as an expression of ancient culture, residential architecture was attributed to Islamic rules, but as we and thus increasing the quality of the image of the city and its at- investigated in this paper, not only is privacy caused by religion tractiveness. Many modern Iranian architects (Apcar, Forughi, but also by security reasons and climatic design measures. Though it is undeniable that after Islam, privacy rules have been Sadeq, Vartan...) promote modernist principles in their designs of residential architecture with the application of new materials, considered more than before. However, changes in the way of life, structures, and layouts; with the principle of privacy being signif- social, and cultural spheres led to the need to reassess the sus- icantly limited. tainability of the privacy principle being strictly applied in resi- dential architecture in Iran. The contemporary residential architecture of Iran extensively State policies that supported women's education and employ- adopts the features of global modern architecture without con- sidering the roots of ancestors’ deep creative attitudes. It experi- ment in the last century freed women from households and sup- ences mass construction mainly because of the population explo- ported their aspirations for modern housing. We can observe that sion. Based on analyzed data, housing spaces consist of the pre- contemporary people desire to reveal, express, and expose them- entrance area, entrance space, kitchen, living room, sanitary selves to others. It is as if people no longer have many things to hide that require high walls and fences in the house, and that they space and bathroom, and bedroom(s) (Fig. 15, 16). In most cases, there are no men’s social layers. The residents of modern middle- will only worry about the loss of property and material assets in- class housing no longer have such a range of privacy like in the side the house, and not about social relations, privacy, or human values. This is because a "global citizen" is born in one place, stud- past. The modern housing layout reflects the social, cultural, and economic changes in the life of the inhabitants of Iranian cities ies in another, and works in different lands. Therefore, the con- cept of home, paternal home, ancestral land, homeland, and pri- and neglects traditional cultural values. 14 ALFA 1/2023 (Vol. 28) vate home will no longer evoke that traditional concept in them. Knowing that the relationship between housing and culture will Due to the emergence of a kind of uniformity and homogenization never be the same as in the past, a new logic and research should in the culture of houses, “global citizens” will probably forget the be established on how to preserve and evolve the native architec- native architectural cultures. At the same time, one should know tural culture in different regions of the country by creating a re- and respect the local styles of architecture and house building. lationship of another kind. Fig. 15: Analyzing the middle-class modern Iranian housing from the aspect of privacy, Shiraz, Iran, 2009. (Source: Authors) Fig. 16: Analyzing the middle-class modern Iranian housing from the aspect of privacy, Tehran, Iran, 2014. (Source: Authors) 15 ALFA 1/2023 (Vol. 28) ture of Tehran’, In: ‘Contemporary identity in DC‘s of great city of Teh- References ran’, Tehran Beautification Press, Tehran, Iran. ISBN 9786007048498. (in Persian) Afshar-Naderi, K. (2003) ‘Iranian Architecture & Monuments, Iranian Archi- Mahdovinejad, M., Mashayikhi, M. (2010) ‘Mosque design requirements tecture Today, A Bridge Between East and West’, Iran Chamber Society. based on cultural-social functions’, Armanshahr scientific-research bian- [online] Available at: https://www.iranchamber.com/architecture/arti- nual, 5, pp. 56-59. (in Persian) cles/iranian_architecture_today2.php Masoud, A. B. (2020) ‘Contemporary Architecture in Iran: from 1925 to the Altman, I. (1975) ‘The environment and social behavior’, Brooks Cole, Monte- present’. [online] Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publica- rey, California, USA. tion/342216429_Contemporary_Architec- Altman, I., Chemers, M. (1980) ‘Culture and Environment’, Cambridge univer- ture_in_Iran_from_1925_to_the_present. ISBN: 979-8620711642 sity press, Cambridge, United Kingdom. ISBN 9780521319706 Muassasah i Jughrafiay i va Kartugrafi i Sahab (1972) ‘Naqdhe bioclimatic Ardalan, N., Bakhtiar, L. (2000) ‘The Sense of Unity: The Sufi Tradition in Per- Iran = Bioclimatic map of Iran’, David Rumsey Map Collection. [online] sian Architecture’ (2nd ed), Kazi Publications, Chicago, USA, p. 150. Available at: https://www.davidrumsey.com/luna/servlet/detail/RUM- Besim Selim, H. (2002) ‘Arabic-Islamic cities, principles of urban planning SEY~8~1~318289~90087050# and construction’, Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance, Tehran, Iran Naghizadeh, M. (2000) ‘Hierarchical wisdom in architecture and urban plan- [in Persian] ning. Collection of essays of the second congress on the history of archi- Emami, H. (2011) ‘Linking Traditional Architecture with Wisdom’, Infor- tecture and urban planning’, In: ‘Contemporary identity in DC‘s of great mation on Wisdom and Knowledge, 6(9), pp. 4-8. (in Persian) city of Tehran’, Tehran Beautification Press, Tehran, Iran. ISBN Engebretson, D., Fullmer, D. (1970) ‘Cross-cultural differences in territorial- 9786007048498 (in Persian) ity: Interaction distances of native Japanese, Hawaii Japanese, and Amer- Nasrollahi, F. (2009) ‘Climate and energy responsive housing in continental ican Caucasians’, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 1(3), pp. 261-269. climates’, TU Berlin, Germany, p. 279. ISBN 978 3 7983 2144 1 https://doi.org/10.1177/135910457000100305 Nayyeri Fallah, S., Khalili, A., Rasdi, M. T. B. M. (2014) ‘Cultural Dimensions of Eskandari, P. (2011) ‘Analysis of Traditional Iranian Houses of Kashan, Iran Housing Entrance Spaces: Lessons for Modern HDVD Housing’, Journal of in Terms of Space Organization and Access Design’, Eastern Mediterra- Applied Sciences, 15(2), pp. 173-183. [online] Available at: https://scial- nean University, Gazimagusa, North Cyprus. [online] Available at: ert.net/abstract/?doi=jas.2015.173.183 http://www.secheresse.info/spip.php?article73735 Nayyeri Fallah, S., Khalili, A., Tajjuddin, M., Rasdi, M. (2015) ‘Privacy as a cul- Evans, G. W., Howard, R. B. (1973) ‘Personal space’, Psychological Bulletin, tural value in traditional Iranian housing; Lessons for modern Iranian 80(4), pp. 334-344. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0034946 high density vertical development (HDVD) housing’, International Jour- Forston, R. L., Larson, C. U. (1968) ‘The dynamics of space’, Journal of Com- nal of Architectural Research, Archnet-IJAR, 9(1), pp. 198-216. munication, 18(2), pp. 109-116. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460- https://www.doi.org/10.26687/ARCHNET-IJAR.V9I1.324 2466.1968.tb00061.x Niay Gharaei, F. M., Rafieian, M., Jalalkamali, N. (2012) ‘Investigating Cross- Gifford, R. (2002) ‘Environmental psychology: Principles and practice’, Opti- Cultural Differences in the Privacy Regulation and Perception of Crowd- mal Books, Colville, Washington, USA, pp. 109-116. ing: Northern and Yazdi Women in Iran’, Procedia – Social and Behav- Givoni, B. (1976) ‘Man, Climate and Architecture’ (2nd ed.), Van Nostrand ioral Sciences, 50, pp. 69-78. Reinhold, New York, USA. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.08.016 Haeri Mazandarani, M. (2008) ‘House, Culture, Nature’, Urban Planning and Nosratpour, D. (2012) ‘Evaluation of Traditional Iranian Houses and Match it Architecture Study Center, Tehran, Iran, pp. 116-131. (in Persian) with Modern Housing’, Semantic Scholar. [online] Available at: Haghparast, F., Niroumand, S. (2007) ‘Sustainability of climate-sensitive ele- https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Evaluation-of-Traditional-Ira- ments in hot-arid regions; case study: Boroujerdis’ house of Kashan’, In: nian-Houses-and-Match-Nosrat- 3rd IRCEC Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia, pp. 90-97. pour/f1671ffdf9aa94326d981bd57debe7937af3cc54 Hall, E. T. (1959) ‘The silent language’, Doubleday, New York, USA. Omer, S. (2010) ‘Islam and housing’, A.S. Noordeen, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, Hall, E. T. (1966) ‘The hidden dimension’, Doubleday, New York, USA. ISBN p. 350. [online] Available at: http://irep.iium.edu.my/id/eprint/53. ISBN 978-0-385-08476-5 Hayduk, L. A. (1994) ‘Personal space: Understanding the simplex model’, Raviz, S.R., Eteghad, A.N., Guardiola, E.U., Aira, A.A. (2015) ‘Iranian courtyard Journal of Nonverbal Behaviour, 18, pp. 245-260. housing: The role of social and cultural patterns to reach the spatial for- https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02170028 mation in the light of an accentuated privacy’, ACE: Architecture, City, Hosseini, S. R., Nik Eteghad, A., Uson, E., Armesto, A. (2015) ‘Iranian court- and Environment, 10(29), pp. 11-30. [online] Available at: yard housing: The role of social and cultural patterns to reach the spatial https://raco.cat/index.php/ACE/article/view/301293 formation in the light of an accentuated privacy’, ACE: Architecture, City Remland, M. S., Jones, T. S., Brinkman, H. (1995) ‘Interpersonal distance, body and Environment, 10(29), pp. 11-30. DOI: 10.5821/ace.11.29.2653 orientation, and touch’, The Journal of Social Psychology, 135(3), pp. Hujjat, I. (2008) ‘Architectural education and the worthlessness of values’, 281-297. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.1995.9713958 Fine Arts – Architecture and Urbanism, 14(14), pp. 70-63. (in Persian) Reza Haeri, M., EIr. (2012) ‘KASHAN v. ARCHITECTURE (3) TRADITIONAL Joklová, V., Bacová, A. (2013) ‘Effective housing, methodical concepts for ur- ARCHITECTURE’, Encyclopaedia Iranica, XVI/1, pp. 21-33. [online] Avail- ban and architectural housing design’, In: Oikodomos. Innovating hous- able online at: http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kashan-v3-tradi- ing learning, Hogeschool voor Wetenschap, Gent, Belgium, pp. 200-211. tional-architecture Kateb, F. (2005) ‘Architecture of Iranian houses’, Ministry of Culture and Is- Saljoughinejad, S., Rashidi Sharifabad, S. (2015) ‘Classification of climatic lamic Guidance, p. 165. (in Persian) strategies, used in Iranian vernacular residences based on spatial con- Keshtkaran, P. (2011) ‘Harmonization between climate and architecture in stituent elements’, Building and Environment, 92, pp. 475-493. vernacular heritage: A case study in Yazd, Iran’, In: 2011 International https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2015.05.005 Conference on Green buildings and Sustainable Cities, Procedia Engi- Sanders, J. L., Hakky, U. M., Brizzolara, M. M. (1985) ‘Personal space amongst neering, 21, pp. 428-438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pro- Arabs and Americans’, International Journal of Psychology, 20(1), pp. 13- eng.2011.11.2035 17. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1464-066X.1985.tb00011.x Khalili, M., Amindeldar, S. (2014) ‘Traditional solutions in low-energy build- Sarihi, S. (2015) ‘Adaptable Architecture, Via Studying Iranian Vernacular Ar- ings of hot-arid regions of Iran’, Sustainable Cities and Society Journal, chitecture’, 1st International Conference on Human, Architecture, Civil 13, pp. 171-181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2014.05.008 Engineering and City, ICOHACC 2015, Tabriz, Iran. Lang, J. (1987) ‘Creating Architectural Theory: The role of the Behavioral Sci- Seyfian, M. K., Mahmudi, M. R. (2007) ‘Privacy in the Iranian Traditional Ar- ences in Environmental Design’, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, USA, chitecture’, Journal of Identity of City, 1(1), pp. 3-14. (in Persian) p. 352. ISBN 0442259816 Shah, M. (2017) ‘Importance of Hierarchy in Architecture’, GharPedia. Little, K. B., Henderson, C. (1968) ‘Value congruence and interaction dis- [online] Available at: https://gharpedia.com/blog/hierarchy-in-architec- tance’, Journal of Social Psychology, 113, pp. 41-51. ture/ Mahdavinejad, M. (2002) ‘Necessities of mosque design based on social cul- Sommer, R. (1968) ‘Intimacy ratings in five countries‘, International Journal tural functions’, Armanshahr Journal of Science & Research, 5. (in Per- of Psychology, 3(2), pp. 109-114. sian) https://doi.org/10.1080/00207596808247233 Mahdavinejad, M. (2004) ‘Islamic Art in challenge with contemporary con- Watson, O. M., Graves, T. D. (1966) ‘Quantitative research in proxemic behav- cepts and new horizons’, Journal of Fine Arts of the University of Tehran, ior’, American Anthropologist, 68(4), pp. 971-985. 12. (in Persian) https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1966.68.4.02a00070 Mahdavinejad, M., Mansour Pour, M., Qeiderlou, K. (2013) ‘Privacy in the model of native housing and its withdrawal in contemporary architec-

Journal

Architecture Papers of the Faculty of Architecture and Design STUde Gruyter

Published: Mar 1, 2023

Keywords: privacy; climatic architecture; Iran; Islamic rules; vernacular residential architecture

There are no references for this article.