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An Overview of the Impact of Tillage and Cropping Systems on Soil Health in Agricultural Practices

An Overview of the Impact of Tillage and Cropping Systems on Soil Health in Agricultural Practices Hindawi Advances in Agriculture Volume 2023, Article ID 8861216, 14 pages https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/8861216 Review Article An Overview of the Impact of Tillage and Cropping Systems on Soil Health in Agricultural Practices 1 1 1 2 Prodipto Bishnu Angon , Nafisa Anjum , Mst. Masuma Akter , Shreejana KC , 1 1 Rucksana Parvin Suma , and Sadia Jannat Faculty of Agriculture, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh 2202, Bangladesh Department of Plant Sciences and Plant Pathology, Faculty of Plant Science, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana, USA Correspondence should be addressed to Prodipto Bishnu Angon; angonbishnubau@gmail.com Received 24 December 2022; Revised 19 April 2023; Accepted 18 May 2023; Published 27 May 2023 Academic Editor: Xinqing Xiao Copyright © 2023 Prodipto Bishnu Angon et al. Tis is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Tere is currently a demand to grow more crops in less area as a result of urbanization’s reduction of agricultural land. As a result, soil fertility is gradually declining. To maintain soil fertility, various management methods are used in modern times. Te conventional tillage method is a traditional tillage method that damages soil structure, but zero tillage can improve soil quality. By maintaining soil structure with no-tillage, biological processes are frequently improved and microbial biodiversity is increased. Tis review helps to understand the role of tillage as well as cropping systems in increasing crop production by maintaining soil fertility. For agricultural production and environmental protection to be sustained for future generations, soil quality must be maintained and improved in continuous cropping systems. Te nodulation, nitrogen fxation, and microbial community are all impacted by diferent cropping systems and tillage methods. Tey also alter soil properties including structure, aeration, and water utilization. Te impact of tillage and cropping system practices such as zero and conventional tillage systems, crop rotation, intercropping, cover cropping, cultivator combinations, and prairie strip techniques on soil fertility is carefully summarized in this review. Te result highlights that conservational tillage is much better than conventional tillage for soil quality and diferent aspects of diferent tillage and their interaction. On the other hand, intercropping, crop rotation, cover cropping, etc., increase the crop yield more than monocropping. Diferent types of cropping systems are highlighted along with their advantages and disadvantages. Using zero tillage can increase crop production as well as maintain soil fertility which is highlighted in this review. In terms of cropping systems and tillage management, our main goal is to improve crop yield while minimizing harm to the soil’s health. agricultural output via the Green Revolution, but they have 1. Introduction also caused environmental contamination and biodiversity Soil has a fundamental role in crop production [1]. Crops loss in agricultural systems [5]. In terms of agroecosystem need fertile land to produce adequate amounts of yield [2]. production, intensive agriculture has made great strides. Currently used growing systems favor the sound environ- Retaining soil fertility has become a major challenge in today’s world [3]. Wind and water erosion, salinization, ment, which includes extensive expanses of cultivated land, compaction, and severe nutrient depletion have been caused and replaces the diversity of native plant life with other by inadequate clearance techniques, unsuitable land use cultivars or monocultures of certain cultivars [6]. Tis not practices, overgrazing, and overexploitation. Te aficted only results in the depletion of resources for cultivated plants area is still expanding, and a massive amount of the land but also reduces many advantages that biodiversity in surface is currently severely deteriorated [4]. High-yielding agroecosystems ofers. As a result, it is vital to comprehend cultivars, pesticides, and chemical fertilizers have increased the mechanisms used in agricultural systems to diversify in 2 Advances in Agriculture ways that promote soil fertility and higher yields [7, 8]. It is of temporal and spatial perspectives [23]. Cropping systems undeniable that diferent cropping systems and tillage help were frst created to increase the production from agro- preserve soil fertility and biodiversity [9]. systems, however, modern agriculture is becoming more High-yield crop growth is not solely a result of good soil concerned with cropping systems’ environmental sustain- management measures. Te growth of crops is very climate- ability [24]. Below is a discussion of diferent multiple- sensitive. Long-term trends in average precipitation, in- cropping systems compared to mono-cropping to pre- terannual climate variability, shocks at certain phenological serve and improve soil fertility (Figure 1). stages, temperature, and extreme weather events all have an impact on it. Even though increased CO can promote plant 2.1.1. Crop Rotations. Growing several crops on the same development [10], it also lowers the nutritional content of land during various seasons is known as crop rotation. It is the majority of food crops [11]. Most plant species, including one of the best methods for preventing soil-borne diseases soybeans, wheat, and rice, have critical mineral and lower [25]. For managing the specifc infections that are present, protein concentrations due to rising atmospheric CO levels. the rotation design is crucial [13]. As an illustration, root Cropping systems, a crucial part of a farming system, colonization by bacteria and archaea is impacted by crop depict the cropping patterns utilized on a farm and how they rotation between upland maize and marsh rice [26, 27]. Crop interact with other farm enterprises, farm resources, and rotation impacts seed banks, which is proven by how technology that is available to them. It is widely recognized consecutive crops require diferent weed management that mycorrhizal fungus activity can improve soil quality. strategies [28, 29]. Tose weeds that endure and generate Cropping systems promote soil mycorrhizal fungi in- seeds during one crop add to the seed bank from which weed oculation [12]. Additionally, mycorrhizal fungi aid in im- seedlings are attracted throughout subsequent crops. Tere proving early crop growth. It develops symbiotic are more opportunities for weed mortality events in rota- interactions with plant roots that can help with water and tions than in monocultures due to more variety in the type nutrient intake [13]. and timing of soil, crop, and weed management methods On the other hand, a key aspect of agronomy that afects [29]. Crop yield, nutrient leaching, the presence of weeds, the properties of both soil and crops is tillage. Te main goal pests, and diseases, and crop rotation performance are all of tillage is to provide the right conditions for the growth of considered when evaluating crop rotation’s efectiveness. seedlings, the germination of seeds, and the best possible Other studies looking at how crop rotation afects soil crop yields [14]. Changes in the chemical and physical fertility and insect proliferation use the experiment as characteristics of soil brought on by various tillage tech- a workspace [6, 30]. An experiment was carried out to niques can have an impact on elements directly related to determine the impact of soil tillage and crop rotation in biotic actions in the soil, including soil moisture, organic northern agricultural systems. Under no-tillage and plow- matter, temperature, and ventilation in addition to the ing, three forms of crop rotation were compared: mono- degree of interaction among soil organic matter and culture, two-year rotation, and four-year rotation. A nutrients [15]. diversifed crop rotation enhanced spring wheat output by Tillage practice and cropping systems is essential to up to thirty percent with no-tillage and by thirteen percent maintain soil fertility [16]. As conservation tillage improve under the plow as compared to monoculture [31]. the physical condition of the soil [17], the cropping system Overall, no-tillage plots showed higher yield quantity removes the defciency of any nutrient element in the soil and quality variations than plowed plots between crop cy- [18]. So far, many reviews on cropping systems and tillage cles. Te crop rotation with the widest variety of crops had have been performed separately [19–22]. But this review the lowest severity of a plant disease, wheat leaf blotch brings the two issues together and highlights the role of disease. In comparison to wheat monoculture, the average tillage and cropping systems on soil fertility and soil severity of the wheat leaf blotch disease was 20% lower when management. In this review, we highlight the latest wheat was cultivated every fourth year. Stem and root cropping systems in agriculture as well as their beneft on disease were the least common in crop rotations with the crop production. People may easily understand the dif- most diverse crop mix [31]. Crop rotation is a useful strategy ference between existing cropping systems and which can for controlling a wide range of illnesses and pests cope with modern agriculture through this review. Our (Table 1) [32]. main target is to increase crop production with minimum damage to soil health from the perspective of cropping systems and tillage management. Tis review fnds the best 2.1.2. Intercropping. Multicropping, also known as inter- way and indicates the specifc importance of tillage and cropping, is a centuries-old agricultural strategy that entails cropping systems to maintain soil health and increase crop planting many crop species adjacent to one another so that production. they cohabit for a sizable portion of their life cycles [33, 34]. Due to the existence of land being used for nonagricultural purposes, the amount of land that is available for agriculture 2. Cropping System and Its Benefits on Soil is decreasing daily. In this context, developing a highly 2.1. Cropping System. Cropping systems used in agriculture, intensive sequential cropping system that intercrops is one of the key techniques to boost agricultural output [35]. such as crop diversifcation, crop rotation, and intercrop- ping, have an impact on soil quality and health from a variety Intercropping often involves one main crop and one or more Advances in Agriculture 3 Cropping System Crop rotations Intercropping Cover cropping Cultivar mixtures Prairie strip Figure 1: Diferent types of cropping system. registered higher net returns and beneft-cost ratios than additional crops, with the main crop having the most economic signifcance. In an intercropping system, two or the combination of fnger millet with green gram and more crops of preferably unrelated varieties are planted. soybean with the same row population. Te faba bean Intercropping can involve growing an annual crop alongside produced more biomass and more grain when it was an annual intercrop, an annual crop alongside a perennial intercropped with maize, the yield of the faba bean was intercrop, or perennial crops alongside a perennial intercrop recorded as being lower when it was intercropped with [36]. Without a doubt, sequential cropping systems beneft wheat [37]. Yield improvements have been observed when farmers in a variety of ways, including increased pro- compared to equivalent sole crops. Grain yields in inter- ductivity, better resource utilization, and fnancial gain [35]. cropped systems were found to be on average 22% higher than in comparable monocultures and to have improved Intercropping comes in four diferent forms and is used all over the world. year-to-year consistency using four lengthy (10–16 years) studies on soils of varying fertility [38]. (i) Row intercropping: Te basic goal of intercropping is to promote more Row intercropping is the practice of cultivating two signifcant biological and crop interactions. It has been or more crops concurrently, where one or more found that the use of intercropping, little tillage, and organic crops are grown in regular rows and another crop or fertilizer improved the soil’s fertility and maintained the crops may be produced simultaneously in a row or amount of ground cover necessary to protect the soil [39]. may be grown at random with the frst crop. Compared to when they are cultivated as a single crop, (ii) Mixed Cropping: intercrop components are less susceptible to pests and disease organisms. Comparing solitary cropping and row Te act of cultivating two or more crops side by side cropping to mixed intercropping, the incidence of common without a distinct row pattern is known as mixed bacterial blight was reduced by an average of 23% and 5%, intercropping. Grass-legume intercropping in respectively. It has been suggested that intercropping wheat a pasture-based system may be appropriate for this with diferent crop species can lessen the harm that powdery type of planting system. mildew and stripe rust do [40]. It has been discovered that, (iii) Strip intercropping: through a variety of mechanisms, intercropping with Te act of cultivating two or more crops simulta- marigolds signifcantly reduced the incidence of Alternaria neously in distinct strips that are both wide enough solani which causes late blight in tomatoes [41]. to permit independent cultivation and thin enough to permit agronomic infuence. 2.1.3. Cover Cropping. Any living ground cover that is (iv) Relay intercropping: planted next to or after the primary crop and frequently Relay intercropping involves having two crops in removed before the following crop is sown is known as the feld at once for a period of time. In this a cover crop. Cover crops occasionally entail double crop- technique, the second crop is planted after the frst ping into one main crop in order to decrease soil erosion, has reached reproductive maturity but before the pests, and weeds and increase organic matter (Table 1). frst is ready for harvest. Other methods of using cover crops include relay cropping, When the experiment was carried out in West Bengal, overseeding, and interseeding [42]. With the advent of India’s red and lateritic belts, it was discovered that herbicides and synthetic fertilizers, the utilization of these intercropping fnger millet with pea gourd and groundnut systems was drastically curtailed [42]. 4 Advances in Agriculture Table 1: Major role of diferent cropping systems in soil with example. Cropping system Major role Suitable crops Crop rotations Without using synthetic inputs, aids in restoring nutrients to the soil Mostly soybeans and corn Increase plant resource efciency and encourage the natural control of weeds, Intercropping Cowpea, beans, groundnut, leguminous crops, soybean, maize, corn, wheat, etc diseases, and insect pests to increase climate resilience Wheat, ryegrass, pennisetum, lablab, cowpea sorghum, millet, oats, barley, alfalfa Cover cropping Enhancing the biological, chemical, and physical characteristics of soil hairy vetch, red and white clover fava, Austrian winter pea, triticale, etc Cultivar mixtures Control several diseases Maize, barley, wheat, snap beans, etc Prairie strip Improve water quality, decrease soil erosion, and promote biodiversity Mostly corn and soybean Advances in Agriculture 5 • More coverage above and below the top soil • Limited coverage above and below topsoil • Reduces soil erosion • Soil erosion • Suppresses weeds • Increase weeds • Extensive root system that aids in water filtration Without cover crop With cover crop Figure 2: Diference between the cultivation with and without cover crop. According to Drinkwater and Snapp [43], cover crops 2.1.4. Cultivar Mixtures. Agronomically suitable cultivar have a signifcant potential to improve cropping systems’ combinations called cultivar mixtures lack any further functional diversity and environmental sustainability. In an phenotypic uniformity breeding. Growing mixes of several annual cropping system, growing an understory crop or crop cultivars could be one way to boost genetic variety cover crop alongside or after a cash crop may satisfy without signifcantly raising crop management complexity. a geographical or temporal niche. In areas with shorter Contrary to expectations, ecological interactions may be growing seasons, interseeding or relay cropping is a com- more infuenced by intraspecifc genetic diversity (Table 1). Boosting biodiversity through variety mixing had mon strategy for establishing and reaping the benefts of a cover crop. It has received some attention in the northern a similar impact on primary plant productivity as doing so great plains (NGP) [44]. through species mixtures, but the diversity of arthropods Relay cropping is a popular technique for establishing increased less [49]. Cultivar mixes may even help improve and utilizing a cover crop in regions with shorter growing yield stability and yield in cultivars that would otherwise seasons. Tis strategy has attracted some attention in the yield less, according to Mengistu et al. [50]. Te disease NGP [44, 45]. Tere are no appreciable losses in grain control brought about by the genetically diverse cultivars in output, according to studies on the sustainability of cover the mixtures is the crucial factor in maintaining grain yield cropping in cereals in Manitoba, Canada. [46]. Addition- and quality in cultivar combinations [51]. Cultivar combi- ally, it may stop the spread of disease spores onto the crop nations have been utilized successfully in spring wheat crops [47]. But it frequently comes with issues with weed control in the US, Germany, and Europe as well as spring barley and yield reduction. From this vantage point, cover crops crops to lessen yield losses brought on by the leaf disease may be crucial in reducing weed infestation and main- [52, 53]. However, other researchers have not found any taining productivity. Long-term experiments revealed that advantages in combining cultivars [54]. cover crop cultivation, particularly in reduced tillage Terefore, it is crucial to choose cultivars for the mixture regimens, could signifcantly enhance soil organic carbon that can lessen the diseases that the crops are likely to en- and total nitrogen. Any crop cultivated for soil improve- counter. If the mixture’s constituent parts are pertinent to ment and protection as opposed to crop production is the pressures posed by the pathogens, then the suppression referred to as a cover crop. Te prevention of soil erosion, of diseases may be all but complete. biological N fxation, weed or insect suppression, and other objectives may be more specifc objectives of cover crops (Figure 2). 2.1.5. Prairie Strip. Prairie strips are a type of conservation As a result, cover crops have a lot of potentials to boost measure that safeguards soil and water while also providing cropping systems’ functional variety and environmental animal habitats. Prairie strips, a relatively new conservation sustainability [43]. A cropping system’s available spatial and cropping technique for farms [55, 56], have demonstrated temporal niches must be carefully analyzed before selecting advantages for enhancing soil health, safeguarding the en- a cover crop species and a means for incorporating it vironment, and supplying wildlife. Compared to other pe- [46, 48]. rennial vegetation types, prairie strips ofer these 6 Advances in Agriculture CROPPING SYSTEM Improve Reduction soil Runoff  structure   Ecological Reduction intensification  soil losses  Increase crop production  Increase Reduction soil nutrient fertility  losses   Figure 3: Role of cropping systems to improve soil health as well as crop production. disproportionate benefts to a greater extent due to the Te cornerstone for crafting innovative novel tools and variety of native plant species they contain, their deep methodologies for evaluating biological physiognomies of multilayered root systems, and their rigid stems that can soil and procedures is strengthening the scientifc founda- tion for the assessment of soil health. Te tools and withstand heavy rain. Prairie strips are among the most readily available and cost-efective agricultural conservation methodology include genomic advancements such as se- quencing, bioinformatics, and mapping. Te impact of strategies, according to the STRIPS (Science-based Trails of Row Crops Integrated with Prairie Strips) study [57]. phylogenesis on the quality and strength of soil is a scorching topic for novel investigation strategies. Tese can be in- In agroecosystems, prairie strips present less of a man- agement issue while improving nutrient retention, soil or- novative approaches for commercial investments, even ganic matter content, and soil water infltration (Table 1) though the biology of the soil has been advanced and [58]. While longer crop rotations can lower the prevalence of esteemed as a crucial part of pedology for epochs. Te soil diseases and improve the economic benefts of some foundation of in-situ sensors such as accessible carbon in the additional crops, such as minor grains and forages, they also soil, soil pH, soil bulk density capacity of the soil, and call for more manpower, tools, and management techniques. microbial activity that can profciently evaluate the biotic and abiotic markers is an imminent opportunity to upsurge To improve ecosystem services for soil health, prairie strip methods could be integrated with other crop rotations [59]. soil health assessment [62]. Tese strategies will signifcantly advance the feld of soil health and strength assessments, as In order to meet both environmental and economic goals, perennial native grass species grown in rotation with other well as the ability to sustainably improve soil health and crops, for instance, provide signifcant opportunities for quality. diversifcation [60, 61], but the levels of benefts provided by Additionally, inclusive developments in the biology of prairie strips are higher. soil, fresh IT innovation, and metadata analyzing methods for deciphering and synthesizing data on soil quality in- dicators under various climatic and edaphic circumstances will result in additional trustworthy recommendations. It 2.2. Role of Cropping System on Soil Health. Te category of will enhance imperishable land management and aid in crops that are grown on a certain plot of land following reducing and preventing the comprehensive degradation of a defnite sequence of crops over a set period is known as soil [13]. Some environmentally friendly cultivation prac- cropping system. Te process defnes how they interact with tices such as crop rotation, intercropping, shifting cultiva- other agricultural companies and farm resources. It covers tion, contour strip cropping, relay cropping, and cover crops every facet of supervision and agricultural coordination in can improve the vigor of the soil by lowering artifcial terms of time and space. Depending on the precise rotation of chemical pollution [63]. Such a type of traditionally struc- crops, amendments of nutrients, and tillage techniques used, tured cropping system not only balanced the ecosystem but cropping systems can have an impact on a variety of soil also maximized the yields of the crops. qualities (Figure 3). It may either beneft environmental conditions or cause the soil quality to deteriorate, improve, or Crop rotation aids in plummeting the raindrop’s impacts remain unchanged over time. By combining altered signs of on the soil and overall attrition of water such as splash ftness of soil health which include physicochemical prop- erosion and rill erosion as the underground parts of the plants mainly roots grasp the topmost stratum of the soil. erties of the soil, soil microorganism’s eminence, and crop- ping practices into indices in agroecosystems, momentous Integration of crops on a farm along with trees (agroforestry) assists to avert soil erosion. Along with contributing a variety endeavors, inclusive of refnement of the content material of soil health, and the improvement of novel evaluation stan- of ecosystem amenities, biomass and soil carbon pools also consume more atmospheric carbon dioxide than the se- dards for quality and health of the soil can be used to evaluate and undeviate soil and management decisions of crops. quester. To reap the greatest environmental and economic Advances in Agriculture 7 benefts in ravine areas, agroforestry may be a promising tillage that is shallower and occasionally more location- strategy [64]. Such multiple amalgamations increase the specifc is classifed as secondary. Primary tillage causes diversity of crops, improve the performance of the agri- the soil to become looser and mixes in fertilizer or plant cultural system, and spare space for biodiversity. It helps matter, giving the soil a rough texture. Secondary tillage reduce the usage of formulated inorganic fertilizers and creates fner soil and might occasionally shape the rows to pesticides, which have negative impacts on the environment. create the seed bed. Pesticide use has been concomitant to numerous docu- Plowing is an example of primary tillage, which typically mented negative efects on the environment, including the results in a rough surface fnish. Secondary tillage, on the poisoning of commercial honeybees and wild pollinators of other hand, typically results in a smoother surface fnish, fruits and vegetables, the eradication of natural pest- such as that needed to create a decent seedbed for many controlling predators in agricultural and natural ecosys- crops. In terms of methods or systems, there are around 5 tems, the contamination of ground- and surface-water with systems that are more or less practiced by the farmers. But pesticide residues, the extinction of fsh and other aquatic among all these methods, conventional and conservation organisms, mammals, birds, microorganisms, and in- tillage are the most important and discussed ways of tillage, vertebrates, and population shifts of plants and animals considering soil fertility and all other characteristics. within the ecosystem toward more tolerant species. Conservation tillage is a cutting-edge agricultural Utilizing the available resources more efectively is made farming technique that use no-till, reduced tillage, and possible by having a variety of crops. During the growing minimum tillage to limit soil wind erosion, water erosion, season, plants equally distribute natural resources such as and soil pollution as well as to improve soil fertility, drought nutrients, sunlight, and groundwater in the soil, plummeting resilience, and water conservation [69, 70]. Numerous the likelihood of nutrient defcits and drought. Te con- earlier researches have shown that conservation tillage has version to sustainable amplifcation of crop production a major impact on the ecosystem services that the soil systems is being facilitated through resource conservation provides, such as soil fertility, nitrogen cycling, and crop [65]. It will enhance the quality of the soil and prevent soil productivity [71, 72]. Conventional tillage involves layer inversion (plowing). erosion by forming crusts and causing sedimentation. Crop rotation assists in replenishing soil nutrients without using Tere was no residue on the surface after the crop was artifcial inputs. Additionally, the approach interrupts the harvested; all that was left were the roots of the prior crop. It disease cycle and infestation of insects and pests and boosts divides soil aggregates and creates a farm seedbed free of soil strength by accumulating biomass obtained from nu- clods. Here, the primary sources of power are horses and merous vegetation root systems. It boosts the biodiversity on animals. Later, intensive manure additionally makes use of the ranch [66]. Conservation tillage can be used to lessen tractor power. erosion. It helps to improve the quality of the soil by sta- Te term “zero tillage” refers to a tillage strategy that bilizing the soil as it loosens, suppressing weeds, preparing only includes preparing the soil so that seeds can be sown. the soil, and the seedbed, and preserving the soil moisture. One of the most popular conservation tillage techniques is Tis in turn increases the water infltration and decreases the no-till or zero tillage, which just slightly disrupts the soil runof. As a result, it reduces soil erosion [67]. structure and helps to conserve water, moisture, and nu- Dangerous air pollutants such as methane, nitrous oxide trients in surface soil [73]. Zero tillage is a conservation ammonia, and hydrogen sulfde are emitted into the at- farming system in which seeds are sown into otherwise tilled mosphere as a result of the use of hazardous chemical soil by creating a small slot, trench, or hole that is only wide pesticides on crops. Excessive and continuous rain is the enough to accommodate the seed and deep enough to cover prominent reason for agricultural run-of that exterminate it properly. Tere is no more soil tillage. chemicals from the food production zone to other areas. Tese run-ofs will contaminate agricultural soil as well as residential land, streams, and other diferent agroecosystems 3.2. Role of Tillage in Soil Health. Specifcally, conservation [68]. Tese will degrade the quality of the ecosystem. A tillage methods such as straw mulching, subsoiling tillage, cropping system is crucial for lowering the danger of nitrate and no-tillage have produced exceptional results in en- leaching into surface and groundwater because it increases hancing soil structure, decreasing soil erosion, and raising soil nitrogen availability and reduces the need for nitrogen soil nutrient content, all of which are essential for the long- fertilizer. term health of the soil and the agricultural ecosystem [75, 76]. A deeper comprehension of the impact of conservation 3. Tillage and Its Role in Soil tillage on soil chemical properties (such as pH, metal cations, 3.1. Tillage. Tillage is the mechanical manipulation of sur- nutrient elements, and organic matter) is necessary to face soil to efect desirable changes in the physical, chemical, achieve sustainable agricultural development and eco- and biological properties of the soil to permit optimal seed environmental protection. Conservation tillage can signif- germination, plant seedling growth, and enhancing plant cantly increase the concentration of OM and OC (Table 2), growth and development. In a broad sense, tillage can be nutritional elements, and other soil chemical qualities, and straw stubble covering can signifcantly increase these values classifed into primary and secondary tillage. Tillage that is deeper and more comprehensive is defned as primary, while as well [77]. 8 Advances in Agriculture Table 2: Soil organic carbon stocks are afected by soil management: a statistical data [74]. −1 −1 −1 Soil depth (cm) Soil management At beginning (Mg·ha ) After 19 years (Mg·ha ) Diference (Mg·ha ) No-tillage 23.33 40.76 17.43 0–10 Conventional 23.53 34.12 10.59 No-tillage 21.96 28.07 6.11 10–20 Conventional 23.54 31.09 7.55 No-tillage 35.17 41.51 6.34 20–40 Conventional 37.01 42.00 4.99 No-tillage 45.29 68.82 23.53 0–20 Conventional 47.06 65.21 18.15 No-tillage 80.46 110.34 29.88 0–40 Conventional 84.08 107.21 23.13 quite considerable proportions. Te soil provides the so- On the other hand, conventional tillage frequently re- sults in signifcant soil and water loss, degradation of the called micronutrients molybdenum, chlorine, boron, cop- natural environment, depletion of soil nutrients, and un- per, cobalt, zinc, manganese, and iron in relatively modest sustainable agricultural production [78]. However, conser- quantities. Tese substances are essential for plant meta- vation tillage techniques can improve soil nutrients and soil bolism, development, and reproduction, as well as for their tolerance to environmental changes [79, 80]. Due to the external supply. If the element is required for the plant to preservation of the soil structure by tillage methods, con- complete a normal life cycle, it may be an essential com- servation tillage practices, especially no-tillage, may increase ponent of a plant ingredient or metabolite. the soil fertility (Figure 4) [81, 82]. Tillage operations also afect the availability of these nu- trients, as they are not always available for plant uptake. Conservative farming methods such as no-till, minimal till, and 3.2.1. Soil Nutrient Content. When compared to traditional permanent raised beds with residue retention produced more tillage, the nutrient availability on and near the soil surface is stable aggregates and increased initial nitrogen immobilization increased in no-till soils, similar to the distribution of SOC [85]. In the frst few years, higher nitrogen immobilizations can content [83]. reduce crop productivity and nitrogen fertilizer recovery, but later on, they can increase crop yield and reduce nitrogen losses (1) Soil Organic Matter. Te organic component of soil via leaching, surface runof, and denitrifcation [86]. referred to as soil organic matter (SOM) is made up of Various tillage practices result in varying degrees of soil decomposing plant and animal residues, soil microbe cells crushing, which is the reason why variable soil layers have and tissues, and compounds made by soil microbes. Te diferent nitrate-nitrogen concentrations. Reduced tillage physical, chemical, and regulatory ecosystem services that without straw stubble covering can lower nitrate-nitrogen soil is capable of providing are all enhanced by SOM. It is leaching loss, which encourages nitrate-nitrogen buildup in particularly important for soil quality and function, and the the soil layer [87]. Because there were more leftovers on the availability of soil organic matter is greatly infuenced by surface under the no-till method, the microbial biomass rose, various tillage systems practiced in a particular soil. Te which raised the P concentration [88]. However, according to microstructure during conventional tillage was dominated Roldan et al., the kind of crop, soil depth, or tillage system had by weakly separated plates and showed the lowest soil or- no efect on the amount of accessible phosphorus [89]. ganic matter (3.68 g/kg ) and highest bulk density (1.49 g/ On the other hand, phosphorus (P) is easily fxed, fows cm ) [84]. more slowly through the soil, and is typically richer on the Te OM content of the soil can be raised by using top layer. If stratifed, rainfall runof can readily wash away conservation tillage. After four years of conservation tillage the majority of the soil P in the top layer. Stratifcation signifcantly lowers the utilization efciency of P, which in karst mountainous terrain, soil organic matter (OM) increased by 7% over conventional tillage [77]. After straw endangers crop growth when combined with the element’s already low use efciency. Te chemical causes of aggre- decomposition, soil OM content increased, soil microor- ganism activity and quantity increased, and straw stubble gation in soil include exchangeable metal cations, including, + 2+ 2+ sodium (Na covering based on no-tillage boosted these factors. Tus, it ), magnesium (Mg ), and calcium (Ca ) ions, also indicates that if the soil remains under no-tillage which can build cationic bridges with organic carbon (OC) conditions and some other agricultural practices are and clay particles to stop the OM from degrading [90]. implemented in the soil, then it will help in increasing the K availability on the surface soil where crop roots were soil organic matter content. denser had increased without tillage and residue retention [91]. Te pH and sodium ion (Na ) are not signifcantly or (2) Micronutrients and Macronutrients. Te macronutrients, inconsistently afected by conservation tillage [77]. To be also known as phosphorus, calcium, nitrogen, sulfur, more precise, conservation tillage can raise TC (total car- magnesium, and potassium are all provided by the soil in bon), OC, OM, nutrients (N, P, and K), and their accessible Advances in Agriculture 9 Increase soil nutrient content Increase soil moisture  CONSERVATION TILLAGE Increase chemical, biological and physical properties of soil   Sustain plant growth  Figure 4: Role of conservation tillage for maintaining soil fertility. contents; it can also enhance metal cation contents (Na , both had an impact on water infltration, storage, drainage, 2+ 2+ aeration, and the ease with which growing roots could Mg , Ca ), and CEC, increasing the number of bases and bringing the pH into balance [77, 92–94]. penetrate the soil. Both abiotic (such as thawing, freezing and tillage, and wetting and drying) and biotic (such as root growth and burrowing by fauna) processes can build or 3.2.2. Soil Moisture. Te soil’s dynamic equilibrium of water destroy pores. Inappropriate tillage techniques can move or moisture, fertilizer, diferent gases, and heat can be greatly and settle soil particles, hasten nutrient mineralization and controlled by tillage treatment, a traditional technique for soil depletion, disrupt surface vented pores, reduce the aggregate development [84]. But it is a fact that a tillage system that works quantity and structural stability, which can compact lower well in one place could be a total failure in another. However, layer soil and lead to the development of plow pans [102]. several soil variables, including soil bulk density, pore space in Tis plow pan formation is not suitable for many crops as it soil, infltration rates, hardpans, soil surface sealing and crusting, interrupts the roots for proper growth and uptake of water hydraulic conductivity, and surface roughness are essential to and nutrients from the various depths of the soil. Te entire the success of on-farm soil water conservation because they have plow pan layer is not compacted by a till, but utilizing low- an impact on the hydrological properties of soil [95]. load machinery enhances pore functioning over time [103]. One of the suitable approaches to overcoming soil moisture Te ecosystem services that the soil provides can be limits in rainfed agriculture is widely acknowledged to be soil signifcantly impacted by changes in the chemical charac- water conservation [96]. In conservation tillage methods, plant teristics of the soil. Te improvements in soil fertility and wastes can cover more than 30% of the soil’s surface [97]. Tis pH balance brought about by conservation tillage can be organic mulch decreases runof, speeds up infltration, and slows achieved [77, 93, 94]. For the proper growth of plants down soil water evaporation [98, 99]. Conserving soil moisture balancing of pH in the soil should be considered. Te and reducing soil erosion are two benefts of conservation tillage chemical features of the soil, such as pH, SOM, nitrogen [100]. In order to save and manage soil water under various soil levels, and exchangeable cations, which are signifcant from types, management situations, and climates, it is vital to com- an agricultural perspective, were modifed by tillage, resi- prehend the efects of tillage strategies on soil hydraulic pa- dues, and crop rotation [104]. rameters. Damaged soil structure, poor soil fertility, and soil surface sealing brought on by conventional tillage methods based 3.2.4. Ability to Sustain Plant Growth. Rhizosphere coloni- on moldboard plows and fne seedbeds with residue removed or zation is crucial for productivity, plant health, and nutrient buried have an efect on water infltration and soil water retention. cycling because rhizosphere microorganisms consume the Other signs of these issues include low soil organic matter content, substrates from plant roots in the soil and live both inside and unstable soil aggregates, and low meso-porosity [101]. on them [105]. Rhizobacteria that encourage plant growth successfully colonize the soil around plant roots, increasing 3.2.3. Chemical, Biological, and Physical Properties of Soil. nutrient intake, stimulating plant growth, and providing re- Traditional soil management techniques such as tillage can sistance to abiotic stress [106]. By maximizing the variability of the soil microbiota, zero tillage, a technique to minimize soil signifcantly alter the dynamic balance of gas, water, heat, and fertilizer in the soil [84]. Micropores and macropores disturbance, could enhance soil organic matter and improve 10 Advances in Agriculture soil structure, leading to greater aeration and water contents Authors’ Contributions [107]. Te exudates produced by a plant’s growing roots PBA developed the idea. PBA and NA designed the struc- support a variety of readily utilizable chemical compounds that ture. NA, MMA, SKC, and RPS collected the data. PBA, NA, drive bacterial diversity in the rhizosphere at the blooming MMA, SKC, RPS, and SJ wrote the manuscript and prepared stage, which difers from the tillering stage [108]. According to the fnal version of the manuscript. PBA revised the the stability of phylogenetic membership, the individuals in the manuscript. root microbiota under zero tillage seem to perform identical host tasks for collecting nutrients from the soil to support plant growth [109]. 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An Overview of the Impact of Tillage and Cropping Systems on Soil Health in Agricultural Practices

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10.1155/2023/8861216
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Hindawi Advances in Agriculture Volume 2023, Article ID 8861216, 14 pages https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/8861216 Review Article An Overview of the Impact of Tillage and Cropping Systems on Soil Health in Agricultural Practices 1 1 1 2 Prodipto Bishnu Angon , Nafisa Anjum , Mst. Masuma Akter , Shreejana KC , 1 1 Rucksana Parvin Suma , and Sadia Jannat Faculty of Agriculture, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh 2202, Bangladesh Department of Plant Sciences and Plant Pathology, Faculty of Plant Science, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana, USA Correspondence should be addressed to Prodipto Bishnu Angon; angonbishnubau@gmail.com Received 24 December 2022; Revised 19 April 2023; Accepted 18 May 2023; Published 27 May 2023 Academic Editor: Xinqing Xiao Copyright © 2023 Prodipto Bishnu Angon et al. Tis is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Tere is currently a demand to grow more crops in less area as a result of urbanization’s reduction of agricultural land. As a result, soil fertility is gradually declining. To maintain soil fertility, various management methods are used in modern times. Te conventional tillage method is a traditional tillage method that damages soil structure, but zero tillage can improve soil quality. By maintaining soil structure with no-tillage, biological processes are frequently improved and microbial biodiversity is increased. Tis review helps to understand the role of tillage as well as cropping systems in increasing crop production by maintaining soil fertility. For agricultural production and environmental protection to be sustained for future generations, soil quality must be maintained and improved in continuous cropping systems. Te nodulation, nitrogen fxation, and microbial community are all impacted by diferent cropping systems and tillage methods. Tey also alter soil properties including structure, aeration, and water utilization. Te impact of tillage and cropping system practices such as zero and conventional tillage systems, crop rotation, intercropping, cover cropping, cultivator combinations, and prairie strip techniques on soil fertility is carefully summarized in this review. Te result highlights that conservational tillage is much better than conventional tillage for soil quality and diferent aspects of diferent tillage and their interaction. On the other hand, intercropping, crop rotation, cover cropping, etc., increase the crop yield more than monocropping. Diferent types of cropping systems are highlighted along with their advantages and disadvantages. Using zero tillage can increase crop production as well as maintain soil fertility which is highlighted in this review. In terms of cropping systems and tillage management, our main goal is to improve crop yield while minimizing harm to the soil’s health. agricultural output via the Green Revolution, but they have 1. Introduction also caused environmental contamination and biodiversity Soil has a fundamental role in crop production [1]. Crops loss in agricultural systems [5]. In terms of agroecosystem need fertile land to produce adequate amounts of yield [2]. production, intensive agriculture has made great strides. Currently used growing systems favor the sound environ- Retaining soil fertility has become a major challenge in today’s world [3]. Wind and water erosion, salinization, ment, which includes extensive expanses of cultivated land, compaction, and severe nutrient depletion have been caused and replaces the diversity of native plant life with other by inadequate clearance techniques, unsuitable land use cultivars or monocultures of certain cultivars [6]. Tis not practices, overgrazing, and overexploitation. Te aficted only results in the depletion of resources for cultivated plants area is still expanding, and a massive amount of the land but also reduces many advantages that biodiversity in surface is currently severely deteriorated [4]. High-yielding agroecosystems ofers. As a result, it is vital to comprehend cultivars, pesticides, and chemical fertilizers have increased the mechanisms used in agricultural systems to diversify in 2 Advances in Agriculture ways that promote soil fertility and higher yields [7, 8]. It is of temporal and spatial perspectives [23]. Cropping systems undeniable that diferent cropping systems and tillage help were frst created to increase the production from agro- preserve soil fertility and biodiversity [9]. systems, however, modern agriculture is becoming more High-yield crop growth is not solely a result of good soil concerned with cropping systems’ environmental sustain- management measures. Te growth of crops is very climate- ability [24]. Below is a discussion of diferent multiple- sensitive. Long-term trends in average precipitation, in- cropping systems compared to mono-cropping to pre- terannual climate variability, shocks at certain phenological serve and improve soil fertility (Figure 1). stages, temperature, and extreme weather events all have an impact on it. Even though increased CO can promote plant 2.1.1. Crop Rotations. Growing several crops on the same development [10], it also lowers the nutritional content of land during various seasons is known as crop rotation. It is the majority of food crops [11]. Most plant species, including one of the best methods for preventing soil-borne diseases soybeans, wheat, and rice, have critical mineral and lower [25]. For managing the specifc infections that are present, protein concentrations due to rising atmospheric CO levels. the rotation design is crucial [13]. As an illustration, root Cropping systems, a crucial part of a farming system, colonization by bacteria and archaea is impacted by crop depict the cropping patterns utilized on a farm and how they rotation between upland maize and marsh rice [26, 27]. Crop interact with other farm enterprises, farm resources, and rotation impacts seed banks, which is proven by how technology that is available to them. It is widely recognized consecutive crops require diferent weed management that mycorrhizal fungus activity can improve soil quality. strategies [28, 29]. Tose weeds that endure and generate Cropping systems promote soil mycorrhizal fungi in- seeds during one crop add to the seed bank from which weed oculation [12]. Additionally, mycorrhizal fungi aid in im- seedlings are attracted throughout subsequent crops. Tere proving early crop growth. It develops symbiotic are more opportunities for weed mortality events in rota- interactions with plant roots that can help with water and tions than in monocultures due to more variety in the type nutrient intake [13]. and timing of soil, crop, and weed management methods On the other hand, a key aspect of agronomy that afects [29]. Crop yield, nutrient leaching, the presence of weeds, the properties of both soil and crops is tillage. Te main goal pests, and diseases, and crop rotation performance are all of tillage is to provide the right conditions for the growth of considered when evaluating crop rotation’s efectiveness. seedlings, the germination of seeds, and the best possible Other studies looking at how crop rotation afects soil crop yields [14]. Changes in the chemical and physical fertility and insect proliferation use the experiment as characteristics of soil brought on by various tillage tech- a workspace [6, 30]. An experiment was carried out to niques can have an impact on elements directly related to determine the impact of soil tillage and crop rotation in biotic actions in the soil, including soil moisture, organic northern agricultural systems. Under no-tillage and plow- matter, temperature, and ventilation in addition to the ing, three forms of crop rotation were compared: mono- degree of interaction among soil organic matter and culture, two-year rotation, and four-year rotation. A nutrients [15]. diversifed crop rotation enhanced spring wheat output by Tillage practice and cropping systems is essential to up to thirty percent with no-tillage and by thirteen percent maintain soil fertility [16]. As conservation tillage improve under the plow as compared to monoculture [31]. the physical condition of the soil [17], the cropping system Overall, no-tillage plots showed higher yield quantity removes the defciency of any nutrient element in the soil and quality variations than plowed plots between crop cy- [18]. So far, many reviews on cropping systems and tillage cles. Te crop rotation with the widest variety of crops had have been performed separately [19–22]. But this review the lowest severity of a plant disease, wheat leaf blotch brings the two issues together and highlights the role of disease. In comparison to wheat monoculture, the average tillage and cropping systems on soil fertility and soil severity of the wheat leaf blotch disease was 20% lower when management. In this review, we highlight the latest wheat was cultivated every fourth year. Stem and root cropping systems in agriculture as well as their beneft on disease were the least common in crop rotations with the crop production. People may easily understand the dif- most diverse crop mix [31]. Crop rotation is a useful strategy ference between existing cropping systems and which can for controlling a wide range of illnesses and pests cope with modern agriculture through this review. Our (Table 1) [32]. main target is to increase crop production with minimum damage to soil health from the perspective of cropping systems and tillage management. Tis review fnds the best 2.1.2. Intercropping. Multicropping, also known as inter- way and indicates the specifc importance of tillage and cropping, is a centuries-old agricultural strategy that entails cropping systems to maintain soil health and increase crop planting many crop species adjacent to one another so that production. they cohabit for a sizable portion of their life cycles [33, 34]. Due to the existence of land being used for nonagricultural purposes, the amount of land that is available for agriculture 2. Cropping System and Its Benefits on Soil is decreasing daily. In this context, developing a highly 2.1. Cropping System. Cropping systems used in agriculture, intensive sequential cropping system that intercrops is one of the key techniques to boost agricultural output [35]. such as crop diversifcation, crop rotation, and intercrop- ping, have an impact on soil quality and health from a variety Intercropping often involves one main crop and one or more Advances in Agriculture 3 Cropping System Crop rotations Intercropping Cover cropping Cultivar mixtures Prairie strip Figure 1: Diferent types of cropping system. registered higher net returns and beneft-cost ratios than additional crops, with the main crop having the most economic signifcance. In an intercropping system, two or the combination of fnger millet with green gram and more crops of preferably unrelated varieties are planted. soybean with the same row population. Te faba bean Intercropping can involve growing an annual crop alongside produced more biomass and more grain when it was an annual intercrop, an annual crop alongside a perennial intercropped with maize, the yield of the faba bean was intercrop, or perennial crops alongside a perennial intercrop recorded as being lower when it was intercropped with [36]. Without a doubt, sequential cropping systems beneft wheat [37]. Yield improvements have been observed when farmers in a variety of ways, including increased pro- compared to equivalent sole crops. Grain yields in inter- ductivity, better resource utilization, and fnancial gain [35]. cropped systems were found to be on average 22% higher than in comparable monocultures and to have improved Intercropping comes in four diferent forms and is used all over the world. year-to-year consistency using four lengthy (10–16 years) studies on soils of varying fertility [38]. (i) Row intercropping: Te basic goal of intercropping is to promote more Row intercropping is the practice of cultivating two signifcant biological and crop interactions. It has been or more crops concurrently, where one or more found that the use of intercropping, little tillage, and organic crops are grown in regular rows and another crop or fertilizer improved the soil’s fertility and maintained the crops may be produced simultaneously in a row or amount of ground cover necessary to protect the soil [39]. may be grown at random with the frst crop. Compared to when they are cultivated as a single crop, (ii) Mixed Cropping: intercrop components are less susceptible to pests and disease organisms. Comparing solitary cropping and row Te act of cultivating two or more crops side by side cropping to mixed intercropping, the incidence of common without a distinct row pattern is known as mixed bacterial blight was reduced by an average of 23% and 5%, intercropping. Grass-legume intercropping in respectively. It has been suggested that intercropping wheat a pasture-based system may be appropriate for this with diferent crop species can lessen the harm that powdery type of planting system. mildew and stripe rust do [40]. It has been discovered that, (iii) Strip intercropping: through a variety of mechanisms, intercropping with Te act of cultivating two or more crops simulta- marigolds signifcantly reduced the incidence of Alternaria neously in distinct strips that are both wide enough solani which causes late blight in tomatoes [41]. to permit independent cultivation and thin enough to permit agronomic infuence. 2.1.3. Cover Cropping. Any living ground cover that is (iv) Relay intercropping: planted next to or after the primary crop and frequently Relay intercropping involves having two crops in removed before the following crop is sown is known as the feld at once for a period of time. In this a cover crop. Cover crops occasionally entail double crop- technique, the second crop is planted after the frst ping into one main crop in order to decrease soil erosion, has reached reproductive maturity but before the pests, and weeds and increase organic matter (Table 1). frst is ready for harvest. Other methods of using cover crops include relay cropping, When the experiment was carried out in West Bengal, overseeding, and interseeding [42]. With the advent of India’s red and lateritic belts, it was discovered that herbicides and synthetic fertilizers, the utilization of these intercropping fnger millet with pea gourd and groundnut systems was drastically curtailed [42]. 4 Advances in Agriculture Table 1: Major role of diferent cropping systems in soil with example. Cropping system Major role Suitable crops Crop rotations Without using synthetic inputs, aids in restoring nutrients to the soil Mostly soybeans and corn Increase plant resource efciency and encourage the natural control of weeds, Intercropping Cowpea, beans, groundnut, leguminous crops, soybean, maize, corn, wheat, etc diseases, and insect pests to increase climate resilience Wheat, ryegrass, pennisetum, lablab, cowpea sorghum, millet, oats, barley, alfalfa Cover cropping Enhancing the biological, chemical, and physical characteristics of soil hairy vetch, red and white clover fava, Austrian winter pea, triticale, etc Cultivar mixtures Control several diseases Maize, barley, wheat, snap beans, etc Prairie strip Improve water quality, decrease soil erosion, and promote biodiversity Mostly corn and soybean Advances in Agriculture 5 • More coverage above and below the top soil • Limited coverage above and below topsoil • Reduces soil erosion • Soil erosion • Suppresses weeds • Increase weeds • Extensive root system that aids in water filtration Without cover crop With cover crop Figure 2: Diference between the cultivation with and without cover crop. According to Drinkwater and Snapp [43], cover crops 2.1.4. Cultivar Mixtures. Agronomically suitable cultivar have a signifcant potential to improve cropping systems’ combinations called cultivar mixtures lack any further functional diversity and environmental sustainability. In an phenotypic uniformity breeding. Growing mixes of several annual cropping system, growing an understory crop or crop cultivars could be one way to boost genetic variety cover crop alongside or after a cash crop may satisfy without signifcantly raising crop management complexity. a geographical or temporal niche. In areas with shorter Contrary to expectations, ecological interactions may be growing seasons, interseeding or relay cropping is a com- more infuenced by intraspecifc genetic diversity (Table 1). Boosting biodiversity through variety mixing had mon strategy for establishing and reaping the benefts of a cover crop. It has received some attention in the northern a similar impact on primary plant productivity as doing so great plains (NGP) [44]. through species mixtures, but the diversity of arthropods Relay cropping is a popular technique for establishing increased less [49]. Cultivar mixes may even help improve and utilizing a cover crop in regions with shorter growing yield stability and yield in cultivars that would otherwise seasons. Tis strategy has attracted some attention in the yield less, according to Mengistu et al. [50]. Te disease NGP [44, 45]. Tere are no appreciable losses in grain control brought about by the genetically diverse cultivars in output, according to studies on the sustainability of cover the mixtures is the crucial factor in maintaining grain yield cropping in cereals in Manitoba, Canada. [46]. Addition- and quality in cultivar combinations [51]. Cultivar combi- ally, it may stop the spread of disease spores onto the crop nations have been utilized successfully in spring wheat crops [47]. But it frequently comes with issues with weed control in the US, Germany, and Europe as well as spring barley and yield reduction. From this vantage point, cover crops crops to lessen yield losses brought on by the leaf disease may be crucial in reducing weed infestation and main- [52, 53]. However, other researchers have not found any taining productivity. Long-term experiments revealed that advantages in combining cultivars [54]. cover crop cultivation, particularly in reduced tillage Terefore, it is crucial to choose cultivars for the mixture regimens, could signifcantly enhance soil organic carbon that can lessen the diseases that the crops are likely to en- and total nitrogen. Any crop cultivated for soil improve- counter. If the mixture’s constituent parts are pertinent to ment and protection as opposed to crop production is the pressures posed by the pathogens, then the suppression referred to as a cover crop. Te prevention of soil erosion, of diseases may be all but complete. biological N fxation, weed or insect suppression, and other objectives may be more specifc objectives of cover crops (Figure 2). 2.1.5. Prairie Strip. Prairie strips are a type of conservation As a result, cover crops have a lot of potentials to boost measure that safeguards soil and water while also providing cropping systems’ functional variety and environmental animal habitats. Prairie strips, a relatively new conservation sustainability [43]. A cropping system’s available spatial and cropping technique for farms [55, 56], have demonstrated temporal niches must be carefully analyzed before selecting advantages for enhancing soil health, safeguarding the en- a cover crop species and a means for incorporating it vironment, and supplying wildlife. Compared to other pe- [46, 48]. rennial vegetation types, prairie strips ofer these 6 Advances in Agriculture CROPPING SYSTEM Improve Reduction soil Runoff  structure   Ecological Reduction intensification  soil losses  Increase crop production  Increase Reduction soil nutrient fertility  losses   Figure 3: Role of cropping systems to improve soil health as well as crop production. disproportionate benefts to a greater extent due to the Te cornerstone for crafting innovative novel tools and variety of native plant species they contain, their deep methodologies for evaluating biological physiognomies of multilayered root systems, and their rigid stems that can soil and procedures is strengthening the scientifc founda- tion for the assessment of soil health. Te tools and withstand heavy rain. Prairie strips are among the most readily available and cost-efective agricultural conservation methodology include genomic advancements such as se- quencing, bioinformatics, and mapping. Te impact of strategies, according to the STRIPS (Science-based Trails of Row Crops Integrated with Prairie Strips) study [57]. phylogenesis on the quality and strength of soil is a scorching topic for novel investigation strategies. Tese can be in- In agroecosystems, prairie strips present less of a man- agement issue while improving nutrient retention, soil or- novative approaches for commercial investments, even ganic matter content, and soil water infltration (Table 1) though the biology of the soil has been advanced and [58]. While longer crop rotations can lower the prevalence of esteemed as a crucial part of pedology for epochs. Te soil diseases and improve the economic benefts of some foundation of in-situ sensors such as accessible carbon in the additional crops, such as minor grains and forages, they also soil, soil pH, soil bulk density capacity of the soil, and call for more manpower, tools, and management techniques. microbial activity that can profciently evaluate the biotic and abiotic markers is an imminent opportunity to upsurge To improve ecosystem services for soil health, prairie strip methods could be integrated with other crop rotations [59]. soil health assessment [62]. Tese strategies will signifcantly advance the feld of soil health and strength assessments, as In order to meet both environmental and economic goals, perennial native grass species grown in rotation with other well as the ability to sustainably improve soil health and crops, for instance, provide signifcant opportunities for quality. diversifcation [60, 61], but the levels of benefts provided by Additionally, inclusive developments in the biology of prairie strips are higher. soil, fresh IT innovation, and metadata analyzing methods for deciphering and synthesizing data on soil quality in- dicators under various climatic and edaphic circumstances will result in additional trustworthy recommendations. It 2.2. Role of Cropping System on Soil Health. Te category of will enhance imperishable land management and aid in crops that are grown on a certain plot of land following reducing and preventing the comprehensive degradation of a defnite sequence of crops over a set period is known as soil [13]. Some environmentally friendly cultivation prac- cropping system. Te process defnes how they interact with tices such as crop rotation, intercropping, shifting cultiva- other agricultural companies and farm resources. It covers tion, contour strip cropping, relay cropping, and cover crops every facet of supervision and agricultural coordination in can improve the vigor of the soil by lowering artifcial terms of time and space. Depending on the precise rotation of chemical pollution [63]. Such a type of traditionally struc- crops, amendments of nutrients, and tillage techniques used, tured cropping system not only balanced the ecosystem but cropping systems can have an impact on a variety of soil also maximized the yields of the crops. qualities (Figure 3). It may either beneft environmental conditions or cause the soil quality to deteriorate, improve, or Crop rotation aids in plummeting the raindrop’s impacts remain unchanged over time. By combining altered signs of on the soil and overall attrition of water such as splash ftness of soil health which include physicochemical prop- erosion and rill erosion as the underground parts of the plants mainly roots grasp the topmost stratum of the soil. erties of the soil, soil microorganism’s eminence, and crop- ping practices into indices in agroecosystems, momentous Integration of crops on a farm along with trees (agroforestry) assists to avert soil erosion. Along with contributing a variety endeavors, inclusive of refnement of the content material of soil health, and the improvement of novel evaluation stan- of ecosystem amenities, biomass and soil carbon pools also consume more atmospheric carbon dioxide than the se- dards for quality and health of the soil can be used to evaluate and undeviate soil and management decisions of crops. quester. To reap the greatest environmental and economic Advances in Agriculture 7 benefts in ravine areas, agroforestry may be a promising tillage that is shallower and occasionally more location- strategy [64]. Such multiple amalgamations increase the specifc is classifed as secondary. Primary tillage causes diversity of crops, improve the performance of the agri- the soil to become looser and mixes in fertilizer or plant cultural system, and spare space for biodiversity. It helps matter, giving the soil a rough texture. Secondary tillage reduce the usage of formulated inorganic fertilizers and creates fner soil and might occasionally shape the rows to pesticides, which have negative impacts on the environment. create the seed bed. Pesticide use has been concomitant to numerous docu- Plowing is an example of primary tillage, which typically mented negative efects on the environment, including the results in a rough surface fnish. Secondary tillage, on the poisoning of commercial honeybees and wild pollinators of other hand, typically results in a smoother surface fnish, fruits and vegetables, the eradication of natural pest- such as that needed to create a decent seedbed for many controlling predators in agricultural and natural ecosys- crops. In terms of methods or systems, there are around 5 tems, the contamination of ground- and surface-water with systems that are more or less practiced by the farmers. But pesticide residues, the extinction of fsh and other aquatic among all these methods, conventional and conservation organisms, mammals, birds, microorganisms, and in- tillage are the most important and discussed ways of tillage, vertebrates, and population shifts of plants and animals considering soil fertility and all other characteristics. within the ecosystem toward more tolerant species. Conservation tillage is a cutting-edge agricultural Utilizing the available resources more efectively is made farming technique that use no-till, reduced tillage, and possible by having a variety of crops. During the growing minimum tillage to limit soil wind erosion, water erosion, season, plants equally distribute natural resources such as and soil pollution as well as to improve soil fertility, drought nutrients, sunlight, and groundwater in the soil, plummeting resilience, and water conservation [69, 70]. Numerous the likelihood of nutrient defcits and drought. Te con- earlier researches have shown that conservation tillage has version to sustainable amplifcation of crop production a major impact on the ecosystem services that the soil systems is being facilitated through resource conservation provides, such as soil fertility, nitrogen cycling, and crop [65]. It will enhance the quality of the soil and prevent soil productivity [71, 72]. Conventional tillage involves layer inversion (plowing). erosion by forming crusts and causing sedimentation. Crop rotation assists in replenishing soil nutrients without using Tere was no residue on the surface after the crop was artifcial inputs. Additionally, the approach interrupts the harvested; all that was left were the roots of the prior crop. It disease cycle and infestation of insects and pests and boosts divides soil aggregates and creates a farm seedbed free of soil strength by accumulating biomass obtained from nu- clods. Here, the primary sources of power are horses and merous vegetation root systems. It boosts the biodiversity on animals. Later, intensive manure additionally makes use of the ranch [66]. Conservation tillage can be used to lessen tractor power. erosion. It helps to improve the quality of the soil by sta- Te term “zero tillage” refers to a tillage strategy that bilizing the soil as it loosens, suppressing weeds, preparing only includes preparing the soil so that seeds can be sown. the soil, and the seedbed, and preserving the soil moisture. One of the most popular conservation tillage techniques is Tis in turn increases the water infltration and decreases the no-till or zero tillage, which just slightly disrupts the soil runof. As a result, it reduces soil erosion [67]. structure and helps to conserve water, moisture, and nu- Dangerous air pollutants such as methane, nitrous oxide trients in surface soil [73]. Zero tillage is a conservation ammonia, and hydrogen sulfde are emitted into the at- farming system in which seeds are sown into otherwise tilled mosphere as a result of the use of hazardous chemical soil by creating a small slot, trench, or hole that is only wide pesticides on crops. Excessive and continuous rain is the enough to accommodate the seed and deep enough to cover prominent reason for agricultural run-of that exterminate it properly. Tere is no more soil tillage. chemicals from the food production zone to other areas. Tese run-ofs will contaminate agricultural soil as well as residential land, streams, and other diferent agroecosystems 3.2. Role of Tillage in Soil Health. Specifcally, conservation [68]. Tese will degrade the quality of the ecosystem. A tillage methods such as straw mulching, subsoiling tillage, cropping system is crucial for lowering the danger of nitrate and no-tillage have produced exceptional results in en- leaching into surface and groundwater because it increases hancing soil structure, decreasing soil erosion, and raising soil nitrogen availability and reduces the need for nitrogen soil nutrient content, all of which are essential for the long- fertilizer. term health of the soil and the agricultural ecosystem [75, 76]. A deeper comprehension of the impact of conservation 3. Tillage and Its Role in Soil tillage on soil chemical properties (such as pH, metal cations, 3.1. Tillage. Tillage is the mechanical manipulation of sur- nutrient elements, and organic matter) is necessary to face soil to efect desirable changes in the physical, chemical, achieve sustainable agricultural development and eco- and biological properties of the soil to permit optimal seed environmental protection. Conservation tillage can signif- germination, plant seedling growth, and enhancing plant cantly increase the concentration of OM and OC (Table 2), growth and development. In a broad sense, tillage can be nutritional elements, and other soil chemical qualities, and straw stubble covering can signifcantly increase these values classifed into primary and secondary tillage. Tillage that is deeper and more comprehensive is defned as primary, while as well [77]. 8 Advances in Agriculture Table 2: Soil organic carbon stocks are afected by soil management: a statistical data [74]. −1 −1 −1 Soil depth (cm) Soil management At beginning (Mg·ha ) After 19 years (Mg·ha ) Diference (Mg·ha ) No-tillage 23.33 40.76 17.43 0–10 Conventional 23.53 34.12 10.59 No-tillage 21.96 28.07 6.11 10–20 Conventional 23.54 31.09 7.55 No-tillage 35.17 41.51 6.34 20–40 Conventional 37.01 42.00 4.99 No-tillage 45.29 68.82 23.53 0–20 Conventional 47.06 65.21 18.15 No-tillage 80.46 110.34 29.88 0–40 Conventional 84.08 107.21 23.13 quite considerable proportions. Te soil provides the so- On the other hand, conventional tillage frequently re- sults in signifcant soil and water loss, degradation of the called micronutrients molybdenum, chlorine, boron, cop- natural environment, depletion of soil nutrients, and un- per, cobalt, zinc, manganese, and iron in relatively modest sustainable agricultural production [78]. However, conser- quantities. Tese substances are essential for plant meta- vation tillage techniques can improve soil nutrients and soil bolism, development, and reproduction, as well as for their tolerance to environmental changes [79, 80]. Due to the external supply. If the element is required for the plant to preservation of the soil structure by tillage methods, con- complete a normal life cycle, it may be an essential com- servation tillage practices, especially no-tillage, may increase ponent of a plant ingredient or metabolite. the soil fertility (Figure 4) [81, 82]. Tillage operations also afect the availability of these nu- trients, as they are not always available for plant uptake. Conservative farming methods such as no-till, minimal till, and 3.2.1. Soil Nutrient Content. When compared to traditional permanent raised beds with residue retention produced more tillage, the nutrient availability on and near the soil surface is stable aggregates and increased initial nitrogen immobilization increased in no-till soils, similar to the distribution of SOC [85]. In the frst few years, higher nitrogen immobilizations can content [83]. reduce crop productivity and nitrogen fertilizer recovery, but later on, they can increase crop yield and reduce nitrogen losses (1) Soil Organic Matter. Te organic component of soil via leaching, surface runof, and denitrifcation [86]. referred to as soil organic matter (SOM) is made up of Various tillage practices result in varying degrees of soil decomposing plant and animal residues, soil microbe cells crushing, which is the reason why variable soil layers have and tissues, and compounds made by soil microbes. Te diferent nitrate-nitrogen concentrations. Reduced tillage physical, chemical, and regulatory ecosystem services that without straw stubble covering can lower nitrate-nitrogen soil is capable of providing are all enhanced by SOM. It is leaching loss, which encourages nitrate-nitrogen buildup in particularly important for soil quality and function, and the the soil layer [87]. Because there were more leftovers on the availability of soil organic matter is greatly infuenced by surface under the no-till method, the microbial biomass rose, various tillage systems practiced in a particular soil. Te which raised the P concentration [88]. However, according to microstructure during conventional tillage was dominated Roldan et al., the kind of crop, soil depth, or tillage system had by weakly separated plates and showed the lowest soil or- no efect on the amount of accessible phosphorus [89]. ganic matter (3.68 g/kg ) and highest bulk density (1.49 g/ On the other hand, phosphorus (P) is easily fxed, fows cm ) [84]. more slowly through the soil, and is typically richer on the Te OM content of the soil can be raised by using top layer. If stratifed, rainfall runof can readily wash away conservation tillage. After four years of conservation tillage the majority of the soil P in the top layer. Stratifcation signifcantly lowers the utilization efciency of P, which in karst mountainous terrain, soil organic matter (OM) increased by 7% over conventional tillage [77]. After straw endangers crop growth when combined with the element’s already low use efciency. Te chemical causes of aggre- decomposition, soil OM content increased, soil microor- ganism activity and quantity increased, and straw stubble gation in soil include exchangeable metal cations, including, + 2+ 2+ sodium (Na covering based on no-tillage boosted these factors. Tus, it ), magnesium (Mg ), and calcium (Ca ) ions, also indicates that if the soil remains under no-tillage which can build cationic bridges with organic carbon (OC) conditions and some other agricultural practices are and clay particles to stop the OM from degrading [90]. implemented in the soil, then it will help in increasing the K availability on the surface soil where crop roots were soil organic matter content. denser had increased without tillage and residue retention [91]. Te pH and sodium ion (Na ) are not signifcantly or (2) Micronutrients and Macronutrients. Te macronutrients, inconsistently afected by conservation tillage [77]. To be also known as phosphorus, calcium, nitrogen, sulfur, more precise, conservation tillage can raise TC (total car- magnesium, and potassium are all provided by the soil in bon), OC, OM, nutrients (N, P, and K), and their accessible Advances in Agriculture 9 Increase soil nutrient content Increase soil moisture  CONSERVATION TILLAGE Increase chemical, biological and physical properties of soil   Sustain plant growth  Figure 4: Role of conservation tillage for maintaining soil fertility. contents; it can also enhance metal cation contents (Na , both had an impact on water infltration, storage, drainage, 2+ 2+ aeration, and the ease with which growing roots could Mg , Ca ), and CEC, increasing the number of bases and bringing the pH into balance [77, 92–94]. penetrate the soil. Both abiotic (such as thawing, freezing and tillage, and wetting and drying) and biotic (such as root growth and burrowing by fauna) processes can build or 3.2.2. Soil Moisture. Te soil’s dynamic equilibrium of water destroy pores. Inappropriate tillage techniques can move or moisture, fertilizer, diferent gases, and heat can be greatly and settle soil particles, hasten nutrient mineralization and controlled by tillage treatment, a traditional technique for soil depletion, disrupt surface vented pores, reduce the aggregate development [84]. But it is a fact that a tillage system that works quantity and structural stability, which can compact lower well in one place could be a total failure in another. However, layer soil and lead to the development of plow pans [102]. several soil variables, including soil bulk density, pore space in Tis plow pan formation is not suitable for many crops as it soil, infltration rates, hardpans, soil surface sealing and crusting, interrupts the roots for proper growth and uptake of water hydraulic conductivity, and surface roughness are essential to and nutrients from the various depths of the soil. Te entire the success of on-farm soil water conservation because they have plow pan layer is not compacted by a till, but utilizing low- an impact on the hydrological properties of soil [95]. load machinery enhances pore functioning over time [103]. One of the suitable approaches to overcoming soil moisture Te ecosystem services that the soil provides can be limits in rainfed agriculture is widely acknowledged to be soil signifcantly impacted by changes in the chemical charac- water conservation [96]. In conservation tillage methods, plant teristics of the soil. Te improvements in soil fertility and wastes can cover more than 30% of the soil’s surface [97]. Tis pH balance brought about by conservation tillage can be organic mulch decreases runof, speeds up infltration, and slows achieved [77, 93, 94]. For the proper growth of plants down soil water evaporation [98, 99]. Conserving soil moisture balancing of pH in the soil should be considered. Te and reducing soil erosion are two benefts of conservation tillage chemical features of the soil, such as pH, SOM, nitrogen [100]. In order to save and manage soil water under various soil levels, and exchangeable cations, which are signifcant from types, management situations, and climates, it is vital to com- an agricultural perspective, were modifed by tillage, resi- prehend the efects of tillage strategies on soil hydraulic pa- dues, and crop rotation [104]. rameters. Damaged soil structure, poor soil fertility, and soil surface sealing brought on by conventional tillage methods based 3.2.4. Ability to Sustain Plant Growth. Rhizosphere coloni- on moldboard plows and fne seedbeds with residue removed or zation is crucial for productivity, plant health, and nutrient buried have an efect on water infltration and soil water retention. cycling because rhizosphere microorganisms consume the Other signs of these issues include low soil organic matter content, substrates from plant roots in the soil and live both inside and unstable soil aggregates, and low meso-porosity [101]. on them [105]. Rhizobacteria that encourage plant growth successfully colonize the soil around plant roots, increasing 3.2.3. Chemical, Biological, and Physical Properties of Soil. nutrient intake, stimulating plant growth, and providing re- Traditional soil management techniques such as tillage can sistance to abiotic stress [106]. By maximizing the variability of the soil microbiota, zero tillage, a technique to minimize soil signifcantly alter the dynamic balance of gas, water, heat, and fertilizer in the soil [84]. Micropores and macropores disturbance, could enhance soil organic matter and improve 10 Advances in Agriculture soil structure, leading to greater aeration and water contents Authors’ Contributions [107]. Te exudates produced by a plant’s growing roots PBA developed the idea. PBA and NA designed the struc- support a variety of readily utilizable chemical compounds that ture. NA, MMA, SKC, and RPS collected the data. PBA, NA, drive bacterial diversity in the rhizosphere at the blooming MMA, SKC, RPS, and SJ wrote the manuscript and prepared stage, which difers from the tillering stage [108]. According to the fnal version of the manuscript. PBA revised the the stability of phylogenetic membership, the individuals in the manuscript. root microbiota under zero tillage seem to perform identical host tasks for collecting nutrients from the soil to support plant growth [109]. 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