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Pinhkngyan: paths taken to recognizing, doing and developing Indigenous methodologies

Pinhkngyan: paths taken to recognizing, doing and developing Indigenous methodologies It is agreed that Indigenous scholars should be central in researching Indigenous issues. However, the literature on Indigenous research methodologies remains vague on who should be involved. This study aims to lower the entry barrier to Indigenous methodologies for anyone wholeheartedly committed to contribute to the decolonizing processes of Indigenous communities and beyond. We do so by exploring the main challenges experienced by the first author during her doctoral journey and highlighting how these challenges were dealt with. Four themes identified were as follows: (1) the colonial gaze, (2) battling with the concept of authenticity, (3) recognizing Indigeneity in the ordinary, and (4) reconciliation with the past to pave the way toward a better future. Three lessons learned are discussed. A vision for a more inclusive Indigenous inquiry is offered, suggesting that reconnection, reclaiming and sovereignty are key to establishing an ethical space between Indigenous ways of knowing and the existing dominant knowledge systems. Keywords decolonization, Indigeneity, insider, non-Indigenous researcher, positionality, Tayal Although growing up in an Indigenous community I never popularity of Indigenous research methodologies is rising, learnt my grandmother’s language. Everything about her scholars diverge in their perceptions of what Indigenous culture was like a relic, communicated to me as backward. research methodologies really are, how they should be Social welfare entered the community framed as help, we practiced, and by whom (Gone, 2019). Two main were muted and learned helplessness. Becoming a graduate approaches co-exist. At one end of the spectrum, it is argued student, though, I came to understand the disorientation that Indigenous research methodologies can be done solely and pain suffered by people in the community, and I by Indigenous scholars, as it is assumed that they are decided I wanted to contribute to the dignity and themselves the knowers of Indigenous cosmology, resurgence of those people, which, I came to understand, epistemology and world views (Olsen, 2017a; Wilson, was in fact my people—which not only my grandmother, 2008). Moreover, it is argued that there is an ongoing but also I belong to. But for a long time, I kept asking intellectual and institutional assimilation of Indigenous myself: Am I Indigenous enough to study Indigenous peoples and Indigenous ways of knowing, and that non- matters? Am I Indigenous enough to use Indigenous Indigenous people cannot be trusted. Therefore, according research methodologies? In this article I will share my own to this line of argument, the participation of non-Indigenous vulnerabilities and doubts, and show you how I overcame people in conducting Indigenous research is not welcome. them, hoping to inspire you to follow your own path. At the other end of the spectrum, it is stressed that utilizing both the strengths of Indigenous and western —Untitled poem by Wasiq Silan, first author, written foundations is necessary, such as the application of in collaboration with Mai Camilla Munkejord, second author Centre for Research on Ethnic Relations and Nationalism (CEREN), Swedish School of Social Science, University of Helsinki, Finland Helsinki Collegium for Advanced Studies, University of Helsinki, Finland Centre for Care Research, West, Western Norway University of Introduction Applied Sciences, Norway It has long been established that western positivist NORCE—Norwegian Research Centre, Norway methodologies may harm Indigenous communities (K. L. Corresponding author: Braun et al., 2014; Denzin et al., 2008). As a response, it is Wasiq Silan, Centre for Research on Ethnic Relations and Nationalism argued that Indigenous voices and practices should be (CEREN), Swedish School of Social Science, University of Helsinki, included in methodologies and epistemologies (Hart et al., Snellmaninkatu 12, P.O. Box 16, 00014 Helsinki 00170, Finland. 2017; Kovach, 2015; Smith, 2012). However, while the Email: an.gao@helsinki.fi 2 AlterNative 00(0) Two-Eyed Seeing (Bartlett et al., 2012). Indeed, Indigenous Tayal—have contested the settler-sanctioned category of epistemologies and methodologies are deeply rooted in the Indigeneity and refused the state-imposed logics of local lands and people, transferring from one generation to Indigenous status (Wang, 2011). Traditionally, from the another. Yet, the cultural interface between Indigeneity and Tayal point of view, life itself came from the river that non-Indigeneity, as well as whiteness and non-whiteness, flows through the Tayal territory. In his study on the cultural has become blurred. Indigenous researchers are increasingly landscape of the Tayal people, Kuan (2013) suggests that trained in westernized universities and Indigenous the river not only represents a means of shared resources, methodologies as such are often designed within western but also binds the Tayal people together and that the river academic institutions (Porsanger, 2004). This indicates itself represents a shared language, blood and memories. rather than pursuing a timeless and culturally pure The Tayal people retained their autonomy in the Indigeneity, a conceptualization of decolonization that is mountains, in spite of Chinese settler colonization in the situated in the interface between Indigenous and non- plains, until the end of the 19th century. In 1895, Taiwan Indigenous relations should be the goal. This is echoed in was ceded from the Qing to Japan as a result of the treaty of the case of Tayal (an Indigenous People in Taiwan) land Shimonoseki, and Japan quickly imposed militaristic stewardship (Acabado & Kuan, 2021). colonization, featuring “armed bunkers, relay stations, and Thus, while we agree that Indigenous scholars should be guard posts along a scorched-earth trail known as the central in designing, leading, doing and conveying research aiyūsen (military guard line) to enclose the Atayal [Tayal] on Indigenous issues (Denzin et al., 2008; Kovach, 2009; settlements of Northern Taiwan” (Barclay, 2017, p. 39), Smith, 2012; Wilson, 2008), it is also important to foster followed by economic and spiritual colonization. The collaboration with non-Indigenous scholars, practitioners Kuomintang Government continued the Japanese colonial and activists (Brannelly & Boulton, 2017). Everyone fully system after 1945, repressed Tayal advocates for self- committed to the decolonizing goal, in other words, should awareness, self-governance and self-defense, and executed be welcome to be involved in promoting Indigenous agenda Indigenous intellectuals such as Tayal political activist and collaborate on the shared concerns (Smith, 2012), Losin Watan (Kuan, 2016). These waves of colonialism in including Indigenous methodologies. Currently, however, Taiwan have severely affected the Indigenous peoples. In early career researchers may experience much of the existing light of the democratization process and the establishment literature on Indigenous research methodologies as of the Indigenous movement from the 1980s onwards, there perplexing and complex, for instance, regarding how to is an emerging trend for Indigenous peoples to regain power navigate between issues such as authenticity, legitimacy and and to refuse settler colonial logic in Taiwan (Acabado & power (Neeganagwedgin, 2015; Snow, 2018). Consequently, Kuan, 2021; Yapu, 2005). Similar trends of self- the barrier may be high, especially among early career determination are taking place in other parts of the world researchers of non-Indigenous or mixed ethnic backgrounds (Simpson, 2014). The ongoing decolonization process who may wonder if they are Indigenous enough to be includes, for example, developing Indigenous-based school entitled to use Indigenous research methodologies at all. curricula (Shih & Tsai, 2021), interrupting settler land This study aims to lower the entry barrier to Indigenous ownership claims (Acabado & Kuan, 2021), repositioning methodologies for anyone wholeheartedly committed to social work in the context of historical trauma (Teyra & contributing to the decolonizing processes. We will do this Hsieh, 2022) as well as re-inventing research methodologies by highlighting the main challenges experienced by the to disrupt positivist research approaches seen “through first author during her doctoral journey (Gao, 2021). We imperial eyes” (Smith, 2012, p. 44). ask the following: Which phases could be identified in the research process of Wasiq Silan when returning to her Decolonizing research: theoretical childhood community to explore perceptions and practices reflections of aging and elderly care, and which lessons can be learned? This article utilizes the story of the first author, who For the past decades, various disciplines have become belongs to the Tayal Indigenous community in Taiwan to disillusioned with the universal standard of inquiry that analyze the complex negotiations of Indigenous Tayal builds narrowly on positivism, deductive reasoning and heritage and ongoing colonial ideologies that played out objectivity informed by natural sciences (Flyvbjerg, 2001; during her doctoral process. Examples from her research Harding, 2004). A positivist scientific approach is journey are used to illustrate how other early career problematic because it claims to hold “a monopoly researchers may navigate the intricacies of engaging with concerning what is true and what is false,” and what is Indigenous methodologies. propagated as “superstition or ignorance” (Helander- Renvall, 2016, p. 63). This hierarchical tradition of placing western knowledge over Indigenous knowledge formed the The Tayal basis of justifying assimilation policies, and even cultural The Tayal are one of the Austronesian peoples who have genocide (Francis, 1998; Skutnabb-Kangas et al., 2016). been inhabiting Taiwan for thousands of years. By mid Under these circumstances, it is imperative to be critical of 2022, the census registration made by the settler Taiwanese the epistemological framework that informs us what reality government indicated that the number of pan-Tayal— or truth is, and how we gain knowledge about it. namely the Tayal, Seediq and Truku—was approximately Indigenous research methodologies are one of the 138,000, however, Indigenous peoples—including the critical voices challenging positivist science (K. L. Braun Silan and Munkejord 3 et al., 2014). The key role of the Indigenous research first author’s personal fieldnotes and reflection diaries as paradigm is to strengthen the knowledge production of well as interview transcripts from her fieldwork in the Tayal Indigenous peoples and build conceptual and ethical territory from 2015 to 2018. Although the analysis, as well frameworks, and that contribute to decolonizing Indigenous as the writing and revisions of this article, were done in communities. The Indigenous research paradigm has drawn collaboration with the second author, this article will inspiration from other interpretive traditions that share describe the phases identified and the lessons learned similar concerns, such as feminist standpoint theory during the doctoral fieldwork of Wasiq Silan; we decided (Haraway, 2004; Harding, 2004), postcolonial studies that from here on, this article will be written in the first- (Said, 1978) and anti-oppressive practice (Baines, 2017; person voice of the first author. Strega & Brown, 2015). These perspectives honor multiple A reflexive, thematic approach was used to analyze the truths and challenge the dominant power relations by field notes and diary entries (V. Braun & Clarke, 2006). First, engaging with the margin, the other, the situational or the I discussed the emotion in a transparent way with my embodied “self-in-relation” (Graveline, 1998, p. 57). co-author, talking about how I felt like a fresh doctoral Moreover, they raise the awareness of power, hegemony, student, and how I gradually developed an increasing colonialization, racism and oppression that the dominant assertiveness about myself and my PhD project. After several knowledge practice often denies (Alular-Meyer, 2008). rounds of analysis and discussions, four main themes or phases during my doctoral fieldwork, were identified: (1) the colonial gaze, encountering ongoing coloniality through Methodologies: approaches and shame and mistrust, (2) battling with the concept of reflections authenticity, (3) recognizing Indigeneity in the ordinary, and (4) reconciliation with the past to pave the way toward a Design and empirical material better future. In practice, these phases were not linear from To answer our research question, a qualitative, interpretative points A to B, but rather recursive (V. Braun & Clarke, 2006). research design was chosen. The analysis was based on the The phases are illustrated in Figure 1. Figure 1. Steps of decolonizing the researcher, visualized as pinhkngyan (Designed by Wasiq Silan). Tayal = an Indigenous People in Taiwan. I can add that during the first round of analysis, I accountability was helpful. Relational accountability tried to focus on my fluid and nonlinear relationships means being aware of one’s responsibility and ethical with the Bbnkis, which means Elders in Tayal language. obligations in conducting research in the Indigenous In this regard, Wilson’s (2008) notion of relational community. 4 AlterNative 00(0) (Smith, 2012). I also prepared myself for fieldwork by Positioning the author team learning some Tayal language to show respect and honor the To position myself, I can say that my own lineage stems cultural protocols in the community (Datta, 2018). from the mountains of Pinsbkan. I grew up in my paternal The first thing I did upon arrival in the Tayal community grandmother’s birthplace south of Taiwan’s capital, Taipei, was to establish a reference group of Bbnkis (Elders), who and I am now, after periods of doubt and insecurity, a were invited to act as co-researchers or partners to guide proud descendant of Tayal from the Taranan river valley. my research goals and priorities. As the reference group My father was raised in a mixed family of a Chinese father was quite positive about my research topic, I thought that and a Tayal mother, and my mother was raised in a mixed the Bbnkis would be happy that a researcher with Tayal family of a Chinese father and a Hakka mother. Colonization heritage would be interested in making their voices heard. I of Taiwan by the Japanese (1895–1945) and the was therefore a bit perplexed to discover that the Bbnkis Kuomintang’s one-party rule (1945–1980s) aimed to were reluctant to talk about Indigenous issues with me. For eradicate the cultural identities and languages of local instance, when I asked them to teach me some more Tayal peoples in Taiwan. Therefore, my active engagement with concepts, they sometimes just stared at me, and when I critical social work validated what I intuitively knew asked questions about Tayal traditional knowledge, they regarding the way in which these forcefully removed did not answer, or even looked amused as if they thought I identities had become an ongoing struggle for people like was joking. Faced with this situation, I anxiously concluded me. Thus, this article is not only a research article but it that probably, I had not quite understood how to successfully also speaks to my own personal process of developing an collect data in an Indigenous context. onto-epistemological positioning of becoming a Tayal A few weeks later, however, I realized there was an researcher, “my own awakening” so to speak (Aluli-Meyer, elephant in the room, something bigger than me not having 2013, pp. 251–252). The second author of this article is of understood how to be a good researcher. In fact, the Bbnkis majority ethnic background living and working in one of in the local day club for older people that I continued to the Nordic countries. She has a wholehearted interest in visit, gradually shared that they were confused by someone critical social research and aims to contribute to social like me—a smart student at university with a prosperous justice for vulnerable groups, including Indigenous future spending so much time in their midst; why are you peoples, frail older people or persons who for various even here? they repeatedly asked me. Or don’t you have reasons are excluded from the labor market. We have better things to do? I soon understood that these questions collaborated closely for more than 3 years in designing were genuine concerns on their part. They also took the research projects, gaining knowledge, analyzing and time to kindly explain to me that there is nothing valuable thinking along with the empirical material from the field, here in the village, so don’t waste your time here. and communicating our findings to a wider audience. Phase 2: battling with the idea of Indigenous Doing fieldwork in Indigenous authenticity communities: outline the four Phase 2 began when I had struggled for quite a while to phases of my research process obtain meaningful data material about aging and culturally safe elderly care from the Bbnkis’ perspective. In addition to In the following, I will present the four phases identified telling me that I was wasting my time, I felt that they when analyzing the empirical material, such as fieldnotes, questioned my authenticity; I had a long university education reflections and transcriptions from my doctoral studies. and I had settled abroad. Thus, according to several of the These phases can be conceptualized by the Tayal concept of Bbnkis in the Day Club, I did not live a true Tayal life, and pinhkngyan, or the path taken (Figure 1). therefore, I was not a real Tayal. In addition, I did not look Tayal! This was expressed, when one of the Bbnkis, over a Phase 1: the colonial gaze—encountering cup of maqaw (Litsea cubeba; a deciduous shrub, also ongoing coloniality through shame and known as mountain pepper) tea, looked into my face, and mistrust concluded that I did not have any traces of the proud Tayal ancestors as I was far too pale (W. Nomin, Tayal entrepreneur In my Master’s thesis, I got interested in Indigenous health in his early 60s). When I explained that even though I grew and well-being by exploring the notion of life expectancy up in Tayal community, only my father was Tayal, and that gap and disadvantaged health. Soon after finishing my even my father was of mixed heritage as my grandfather Masters, I decided to pursue my research interest by diving was Chinese, the Bbnkis declared. “Well, that explains it. deeper into the topic of social justice in long-term care for You are not pure. You’re only one-fourth Tayal!” Moreover, the Indigenous peoples, with an empirical focus on my during my fieldwork, it happened that some of the Bbnkis grandmother’s people, the Tayal. Before entering the field, I and others in the community sometimes asked me whether I had read about the effect of harsh assimilative policies and spoke fluent Tayal, or if I was at least able to recognize some the destructive aftermath on Indigenous well-being and of the plants, animals, and trees in the Tayal forests. Having health, outlined for example by the literature on historical to answer no to both questions increased my doubt about my trauma (Walters et al., 2011), and I had read about the ethical right to claim to be Tayal at all. problems that Indigenous peoples around the world encounter Silan and Munkejord 5 I hesitantly decided to share some concerns about this in a conference when in the intersection between phases 2 issue with a Paiwan researcher. I expected him to be and 3, for instance, took the time to truly listen to my supportive, but instead he commented, “You’ve not been worries. She responded with empathy and shared that her accepted yet by your community, have you?” (V. Gadu, own parents had been ashamed of being Indigenous, Paiwan researcher in his early 50s). His question caught me whereas her own grandchildren were very proud of their off guard. I felt both hurt and confused. Later, he explained Indigenous heritage (A. Fuga, Kanaka Maoli mother, that the question he posed had been on his own mind for grandmother and activist in her 70s). I also spoke with more than 20 years, as he himself was still not fully accepted Sámi (an Indigenous People living in Finland, Norway, by the Elders of his people. For him, being accepted was Sweden and North-West Russia) researchers in different still an ongoing battle. parts of Sápmi (the land of the Sámi People living in At the same time, as my authenticity was questioned, I Norway, Sweden, Finland and North-West Russia), who felt lost and stuck in disjuncture between what I expected nodded as they shared similar experiences. Hildá, a the Bbnkis to share with me, and what they actually pseudonym, told me that her mother was frustrated when shared. I, therefore, continued to feel that the methods and she learned that her grandchildren were learning to speak theories that I had learned during my university education Sámi, calling it “a waste of time.” Another Sámi researcher, somehow did not seem to work. In addition, I received Ellen Marie Jensen, told me that a few months before her comments from different persons that made me doubt not grandmother passed away, the grandmother had shared that only myself and my methods but also my research idea. she had decided not to pass the Sámi language and identity Did the older people in the village even have traditional on to her children: to protect the next generation from the Tayal knowledge to share with me about my research traumas she herself had experienced as a Sámi child in a theme? I turned to a senior non-Indigenous scholar who local school under heavy Norwegianization policy where had extensive experience working in Taiwan’s Indigenous her mother tongue, Sámi, was banned. The grandmother communities for help. I was baffled to hear him suggest shared that she still remembered the fear and shock when that I conduct research in other Indigenous communities being taught by teachers from the majority society in a with less influence and contact with the outside world. He foreign language she took years to learn. Through these commented that “there is no value in researching the care shared narratives, I understood that transformation, and practices in your village, the old people there are too reclaiming Indigenous identities is indeed possible even Sinicized” (A. Wang, Han Chinese project leader in his after generations of colonialism. That contributed to sparks 50s). This idea was also echoed within the community, by of trust and hope. Besu Iban, a community leader, who commented, In phase 3, I also gradually understood that as a researcher, I needed to cultivate patience and humility. This village was assimilated way back when tourism came. Vicki-Ann Speechley-Golden, an educator and grandmother They [Bbnkis] have lost their traditional culture. They only from the Australian Yuin Aboriginal People, South Coast, care about money. [He looked at me and sighed] Even in my New South Wales, cautioned me that sensing and adapting generation, we know very little, not to mention in your to the rhythm of the Bbnkis was crucial. The small snatches generation. (B. Iban, community leader, Tayal man in his of talk that they brought up could perhaps be interpreted as late 50s) pre-talks to test whether I could be considered ready to Tayal culture was talked about as something that was listen to their stories with an open heart. I thus realized that already lost and gone. Speaking frankly, for me, phase 2 although the Bbnkis had not spoken at length about Tayal was when I almost gave up the whole idea of my PhD. traditional knowledge as I had expected earlier, I started my fieldwork, I understood that the ways they experienced and conceptualized the world nevertheless was based on their Phase 3: recognizing Indigeneity in the Tayal ways of being and knowing, including the traditional ordinary Tayal law called Gaga, which we have described in more Phase 3 began with a gradual sense of relief when I finally detail elsewhere (Gao, 2021; Silan & Munkejord, 2022). started to connect the dots through actively engaging in Thus, in phase 3, I started to learn more just from conversations with my grandmother and other Bbnkis to observing the ways the Bbnkis interacted with each other. heal some of the layered disconnections in my own mind. I For instance, on the individual level, I noticed that according also engaged in a more honest, open-minded and reflective to the Bbnkis, being Tayal meant to be qnyat (hardworking), journaling. I understood that the reluctance of the Bbnkis to lokah tzywaw (industrious) and ini psayu’ (not speaking ill share their knowledge with me could be interpreted as a of others). On the relational level, I noticed the significance silent consequence of ongoing colonialism and the traumas of the Tayal notion cisan, meaning storytelling, which is it was still causing. This awareness gradually arose in me as also a form of socializing and relationship building, whereas the result of several compassionate encounters with other the Tayal notion rgyax (mountain), often conveyed in musa’ Indigenous scholars who were willing to listen and share saku’ rgyax (going to the mountain) meant the deep their own vulnerabilities and doubts, and how they had connection the Tayal have with the land. On an ethical overcome them. They also shared their own family’s lived level, I learned the concept of malahang, which meant care, experiences of colonialism. An Elder who was Kanaka caring and governing by keeping the balance between the Maoli (the Indigenous people of Hawaii, USA) whom I met material and the spiritual world. Malahang, I came to 6 AlterNative 00(0) understand, could be maintained by planting vegetables, the significance of rgrgyax (going to the mountains; Silan & caring for children and attending the local church. Munkejord, 2022). In sum, I went through a personal restorative process of In Phase 4, a sense of pride and confidence started to glow contributing to healing the wounds of colonial traumas in me because I had walked through the valleys of despair and imposed on the Tayal people by being increasingly open doubt. Moreover, I began the process of reconfiguring power about both my personal challenges, and by continuously relations and methodological questions in my research. I also listening to and storytelling with mentors, advisors, peers, started to ponder on questions such as who owns research- young people and, of course, the Bbnkis themselves. Phase based knowledge, whose interests does research knowledge 3, in other words, was about recognizing myself and the serve, who will benefit from it and how to make Indigenous Indigeneity of the Tayal people despite generations of Methodologies more inclusive (Porsanger, 2004; Smith, colonialism; it was about reconnecting with the past and 2012). reclaiming the present. It was also about building trust. Discussion Phase 4: reconciliation with the past to pave This article highlights how I navigated the issues of the way toward a better future Indigeneity, authenticity and legitimacy. My path Phase 4 began when I was able to transform my own self- demonstrates the challenges I experienced when entering doubt into recognition of the Indigeneity both within a field where colonization was still ongoing. In the myself and within the Bbnkis. With increased confidence, following, I will discuss the following three main lessons I understood that when at the beginning of my fieldwork, we can learn from this study; they are reflections related the Bbnkis had constantly asked me why I was there, they to (1) recognizing myself and being recognized as an had intended to protect me from the harm they themselves Indigenous insider, (2) doing Indigenous research by had endured in terms of racism, dispossession, using existing Indigenous perspectives and methodologies stigmatization, marginalization and learned helplessness. and (3) developing Indigenous methodologies by aligning Simultaneously, I came to terms with myself: I initiated a with the ways of knowing and being in the specific process of forgiving myself for being overwhelmed by a community where the research is done. tide of guilt, doubt and shame during the first phases of my fieldwork. I also came to terms with being an authentic How to recognize oneself as an insider in Tayal in my own way, despite the ongoing comments from an Indigenous context others based on my too pale skin color, partial cultural inheritance according to the logic of purity, as well as on The first lesson that I learned is that one cannot take my accent when speaking Tayal, a language I had not Indigeneity or even insider-ness for granted. Even though I learned as a child. In this phase, I realized that being an grew up with Tayal relatives in my grandmother’s ancestral authentic Tayal did not necessitate going back to the village, and had Tayal status printed on my ID, it took a original way of life hundreds of years ago before the first long time of fieldwork until I recognized myself, and was colonizers arrived in Tayal territory. Rather, it was about recognized by others, as an insider. In line with Hawaiian reclaiming and even renewing the knowledge, culture and epistemologist Aluli-Meyer (2013), I gradually understood language shared by the Bbnkis in the here and now. that being Tayal, or staying true to Tayal ancestry, is not a I looked back on the paths taken, pinhkngyan, where the what question, but a how question. One is not simply born Bbnkis had walked alongside with me in reflecting and as an Indigenous person, let alone an “Indigenous knower” thinking. I realized that maki nanak Gaga nya, Gaga, the (Gone, 2019, p. 49). Tayal way of knowing, exists in everything. In my case, At the beginning of my fieldwork, I was not accepted by everything I had encountered during my fieldwork so far, the Bbnkis, who kept a distance, perhaps to save me from and all the paths taken, had contained the Tayal law Gaga, ruining my academic career. This distance or silence was whether I was aware of it or not. Through interacting with the no doubt grounded on multiple layers of trauma that had Bbnkis, I become aware that exploring care in the Tayal imposed on them a sense of being impure and inauthentic community was not about discovering a single truth, rather, (Harris et al., 2013), or even urbanized or Sinisized. Faced it was about situated knowledge and Gaga-centered with such trauma, we need to open up our conceptions of relationships. Gaga, in fact, refers to the morality, cosmology what Indigenous authenticity is. Olsen (2017b) points out and balanced relationship between the Tayal and the that Indigeneity and non-Indigeneity “are not binaries. environment. It entails the ethical responsibility between There are spaces in between—in the cultural interface” different beings. The Bbnkis taught me that care in the Tayal (p. 211). In line with this, Blix describes how becoming and community is to re-orient us to Gaga. It means we can being accepted as an insider in the Sámi community was a establish relationships with humans, animals, land, rivers, long and slow process of becoming for herself and her fish, grain and all entities in an ethical way that could sustain children—which required breaking silences across everything and make all things flourish in the web of life. In generations (Blix et al., 2021). this phase, I started to fully understandsome of the Tayal key In sum, the first lesson I want to share with you is that tenets of care in the Tayal community in more detail and in Indigenous insider should not be taken at face value. The relation to each other, such as hmali’ (Tayal language) and space in-between cultures (Kaomea, 2004) and even among Silan and Munkejord 7 Indigenous researchers could be intricate (Silan & Mataira, How to contribute to the development of 2019). The genuine meaning of recognizing ourselves lies Indigenous research methodologies? in an act of allowing ourselves to become decolonizing, The third lesson we can learn from pinhkngyan relates to community-based researchers, privileging Indigenous the importance of openness during the research process. As research methodologies and community priorities. described in this article, it took me years to finally understand what the Bbnkis’ stories were truly about, How to use existing Indigenous perspectives probably because I expected them to tell me something and methodologies else. I expected the Bbnkis, to be knowledge-holders (Datta, 2018), or community leaders who would fight against The second lesson we can learn relates to daring to engage oppression with a unified and strong voice. I expected that with and use Indigenous research methodologies in meaningful they would teach me how the Tayal build balanced ways. In my case, the four phases elaborated in this article relationship between plants and humans and shower me illustrate the transformative steps I took during my fieldwork. with Tayal mythologies and stories, so I would not have to These four phases, moreover, shed light on the significance of learn about the Tayal from museums, but directly learn reverence in Indigenous methodologies, as proposed by from them. This did not happen in the way I expected, Pidgeon (2019). Reverence refers to the importance of the though. The words of Shawn Wilson (2008) could almost researcher connecting to the spirituality within the Indigenous have been mine: community or worldview, and in so doing, establishing a genuine relationship to the field. Reverence, I argue, may The Elders never used to directly confront someone about a contribute to combating cognicentrism, which refers to the problem, or offer direct advice. Instead, the Elder would tell a deep-seated hostility within western knowledge paradigms story from their own life. . . . It was up to the listener to piece against ideas, concepts and knowledge outside of one’s own together a lesson from the story and to apply the pieces where realm of experience (Glass-Coffin & Kiiskeentum, 2012). they fit to help in the current problem. (pp. 27–28) Reverence not only refers to recognizing the quality of sacred Indigenous knowledge (Pidgeon, 2019), but also includes If I had been more open and had listened to Bbnkis’ indirect recognizing the significance of more mundane moments of stories as piecing together a puzzle, I would probably have everyday life (Barnes et al., 2017). understood what the Bbnkis told me much earlier. In addition, it is important to reiterate that decolonizing But, what does being more open mean? While doing this Indigenous methodologies should be developed in an study, I came to understand that I needed to let go of my inclusive manner between Indigenous and non-Indigenous assumptions and preconceptions, and rather observe and researchers and potentially also activists (Brannelly & learn from the Bbnkis’ actual doing, speaking and thinking, Boulton, 2017). On one hand, non-Indigenous scholars and as well as from their values, beliefs and spiritual experiences students should decenter, and consciously place themselves rooted in their own space and time, expressed in their own outside the privileged position (Olsen, 2017b, p. 212), so that way. Thus, to be more open means to embody self-in- the research can be done in different and various ways that relations (Graveline, 1998), to embrace wholism (Absolon, would benefit Indigenous peoples, who are ultimately 2010) and to cultivate a level of corporeal experience heterogeneous (Skille, 2021). On the other hand, Indigenous (Bishop, 1999). For me, this meant gradually becoming scholars need to cultivate skills to identify whether settler physically, intellectually, emotionally, morally, ethically and researchers honor the vision of Indigenous peoples and spiritually ready to engage in the co-production of knowledge. ground themselves in the principles outlined by Indigenous Instead of talking about my research, my idea, my PhD, the peoples (Hart et al., 2017). Together, this inclusive Indigenous research should always begin with seeing if the relationship in developing decolonizing Indigenous study is wanted or needed by the community. My focus on methodologies has the potential to carve out more space for my study in the beginning of my PhD journey can probably a collective story based on Indigenous knowing despite the explain parts of the challenges I experienced, until I was able rules of the academy (Lavallée, 2009). This relationship also to reconnect, and thus obtain a more honest, open minded ultimately challenges the Euro-American ethnocentricity of and reflexive presence in the community. In that way, my positivistic paradigms (K. L. Braun et al., 2014). study gradually became a collective undertaking in phase 3. The phases elaborated in this article, moreover, illustrate Moreover, while developing Indigenous research that the core of Indigenous research methodologies is about methodologies may seem specific and local, the implications using Indigenous research. It is about growing to be more are general and global. Developing Indigenous research aware of the paths taken and the reverence cultivated along methodologies is to defend Indigenous self-determination with each step, and ultimately becoming more aligned to and sovereignty. It is a way to actively refuse western the aims of the decolonization of Indigenous communities. positivist theories and methods as they uproot Indigenous The four phases demonstrate a pathway for how to engage cultures, knowledges and worldviews by labeling Indigenous more confidently with the process of decolonization. They systems as primitive. In other words, developing Indigenous also demonstrate, as Shawn Wilson (2008) who is an research methodologies has its distinctive genealogy. Thus, Opaskwayak Cree from northern Manitoba, Canada, has in line with The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of noted, “If research doesn’t change you as a person, then Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP), I argue that “any research you haven’t done it right” (p. 135). involving Indigenous peoples should support Indigenous 8 AlterNative 00(0) peoples’ pursuit of self-determination” (McGregor, 2018, Indigenous communities, counter migration to rural areas, sense of place, family care, formal care services, but also on immigrant pp. 300–301). Developing Indigenous methodologies in entrepreneurship, work inclusion and public sector innovation. Critical Social Work and beyond is an active act of decolonization, both in terms of (1) deconstructing Acknowledgements coloniality and the colonial ideology of superiority that used to dominate research about Indigenous peoples and (2) The authors express their gratitude and humility to rhiyal, hllahuy, reconciling relationships between Indigenous and non- llyung, hlaqiy, bbehuy, tqinuw, syax wagi ki syax byacing: the land, forests, rivers, snow, wind, and mushrooms, sunshine and moonlight. Indigenous worldviews and ways of knowing. They are deeply grateful to those—elders and youth, women and men, Indigenous and non-Indigenous scholars and practitioners— Conclusion who have committed themselves to pinhkngyan, paths to recognize, doing and developing Indigenous methodologies. This article has focused on the four phases I experienced during my doctoral journey and the lessons learned. The Declaration of conflicting interests four phases include passing from the colonial gaze where I The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect encountered ongoing coloniality through shame and to the research, authorship and publication of this article. mistrust; the phase where I battled with the concept of authenticity, through the phase where I started to recognize Funding Tayal Indigeneity in the ordinary, before finally, being able The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support to reconcile with the past at both a personal level and at the for the research, authorship and publication of this article: community level. In the discussion, I reflect on how to Norwegian Research Council (287301); Norway Centre for recognize oneself as an insider in an Indigenous context, Research Data (577949). how to use existing Indigenous perspectives and methodologies and how to contribute to the development ORCID iDs of Indigenous methodologies. Simultaneously, the article Wasiq Silan https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8242-8785 highlights my process of gradually recognizing myself and Mai Camilla Munkejord https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5700- being recognized as a real Tayal despite my pale looks, as well as recognizing myself and being recognized as an Indigenous scholar. Glossary Ultimately, Indigenous research methodologies are about establishing an ethical space (Ermine, 2007) between Tayal language Indigenous and academic ways of knowing with the aim of Bbnkis Elders cisan storytelling; visiting, socializing, building making a roadmap for a better, shared future. My hope, in relationship this regard, is to engage students and researchers to enter Gaga the Tayal Law; moral order; sacred law this ethical space, and in that way, to contribute to the and cosmology, which entails balanced decolonizing processes of Indigenous and majority relationship between people and the communities worldwide. If not you, who? And if not now, environment; the center of life when? hmali’ tongue; Tayal language ini psayu’ not speaking ill of others This story is about listening, recognizing, reclaiming, lokah tzywaw industrious becoming, and doing. So, go back to the community that maki nanak Gaga nya Gaga exists in everything calls upon you. Celebrate the process of doubt when maqaw Litsea cubeba; a deciduous shrub, also feeling stuck or in-between. Find strength in becoming an known as mountain pepper malahang care and caring between people, humans, insider. If not you, who? And if not now, when? animals and with land —Untitled poem by Wasiq Silan, first author, written musa’ saku’ rgyax going to the mountain in collaboration with Mai Camilla Munkejord, pinhkngyan path taken second author qnyat hardworking rgyax mountain rgrgyax mountains Authors’ note Chinese language Wasiq Silan (PhD) is a Tayal from llyung Taranan (river Taranan) Kuomintang Chinese Nationalist Party in Wulai, Taiwan, who has also published under her Mandarin Japanese language name I-An Gao. She works as a Core Fellow at the Helsinki aiyūsen military guard line Collegium for Advanced Studies at the University of Helsinki. Sámi language Her research and teaching focus on developing sustainable Sápmi the land of the Sámi People living in quality-of-life care systems, decolonization, health and well-being Norway, Sweden, Finland and North-West as well as aging and care in Indigenous communities. Russia Mai Camilla Munkejord (PhD) works as a Postdoctoral Indigenous Peoples Researcher at the Centre for Care Research, West at the Western Kanaka Maoli the Indigenous people of Hawaii, USA Norway University of Applied Sciences. Munkejord has published Opaskwayak Cree an Indigenous People living in Canada widely on themes such as aging and well-being in rural and Paiwan an Indigenous People in Taiwan Silan and Munkejord 9 Sámi an Indigenous People living in Finland, Datta, R. (2018). Decolonizing both researcher and research and Norway, Sweden and North-West Russia its effectiveness in Indigenous research. Research Ethics, Seediq an Indigenous People in Taiwan 14(2), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016117733296 Tayal; Atayal an Indigenous People in Taiwan who speak Denzin, N., Lincoln, Y., & Smith, T. L. (Eds.). (2008). Handbook the Tayal language of critical and Indigenous methodologies. SAGE. https://doi. 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Pinhkngyan: paths taken to recognizing, doing and developing Indigenous methodologies

AlterNative , Volume 19 (2): 10 – Jun 1, 2023

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References (55)

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SAGE
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© The Author(s) 2023
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1177-1801
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1174-1740
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10.1177/11771801231167727
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Abstract

It is agreed that Indigenous scholars should be central in researching Indigenous issues. However, the literature on Indigenous research methodologies remains vague on who should be involved. This study aims to lower the entry barrier to Indigenous methodologies for anyone wholeheartedly committed to contribute to the decolonizing processes of Indigenous communities and beyond. We do so by exploring the main challenges experienced by the first author during her doctoral journey and highlighting how these challenges were dealt with. Four themes identified were as follows: (1) the colonial gaze, (2) battling with the concept of authenticity, (3) recognizing Indigeneity in the ordinary, and (4) reconciliation with the past to pave the way toward a better future. Three lessons learned are discussed. A vision for a more inclusive Indigenous inquiry is offered, suggesting that reconnection, reclaiming and sovereignty are key to establishing an ethical space between Indigenous ways of knowing and the existing dominant knowledge systems. Keywords decolonization, Indigeneity, insider, non-Indigenous researcher, positionality, Tayal Although growing up in an Indigenous community I never popularity of Indigenous research methodologies is rising, learnt my grandmother’s language. Everything about her scholars diverge in their perceptions of what Indigenous culture was like a relic, communicated to me as backward. research methodologies really are, how they should be Social welfare entered the community framed as help, we practiced, and by whom (Gone, 2019). Two main were muted and learned helplessness. Becoming a graduate approaches co-exist. At one end of the spectrum, it is argued student, though, I came to understand the disorientation that Indigenous research methodologies can be done solely and pain suffered by people in the community, and I by Indigenous scholars, as it is assumed that they are decided I wanted to contribute to the dignity and themselves the knowers of Indigenous cosmology, resurgence of those people, which, I came to understand, epistemology and world views (Olsen, 2017a; Wilson, was in fact my people—which not only my grandmother, 2008). Moreover, it is argued that there is an ongoing but also I belong to. But for a long time, I kept asking intellectual and institutional assimilation of Indigenous myself: Am I Indigenous enough to study Indigenous peoples and Indigenous ways of knowing, and that non- matters? Am I Indigenous enough to use Indigenous Indigenous people cannot be trusted. Therefore, according research methodologies? In this article I will share my own to this line of argument, the participation of non-Indigenous vulnerabilities and doubts, and show you how I overcame people in conducting Indigenous research is not welcome. them, hoping to inspire you to follow your own path. At the other end of the spectrum, it is stressed that utilizing both the strengths of Indigenous and western —Untitled poem by Wasiq Silan, first author, written foundations is necessary, such as the application of in collaboration with Mai Camilla Munkejord, second author Centre for Research on Ethnic Relations and Nationalism (CEREN), Swedish School of Social Science, University of Helsinki, Finland Helsinki Collegium for Advanced Studies, University of Helsinki, Finland Centre for Care Research, West, Western Norway University of Introduction Applied Sciences, Norway It has long been established that western positivist NORCE—Norwegian Research Centre, Norway methodologies may harm Indigenous communities (K. L. Corresponding author: Braun et al., 2014; Denzin et al., 2008). As a response, it is Wasiq Silan, Centre for Research on Ethnic Relations and Nationalism argued that Indigenous voices and practices should be (CEREN), Swedish School of Social Science, University of Helsinki, included in methodologies and epistemologies (Hart et al., Snellmaninkatu 12, P.O. Box 16, 00014 Helsinki 00170, Finland. 2017; Kovach, 2015; Smith, 2012). However, while the Email: an.gao@helsinki.fi 2 AlterNative 00(0) Two-Eyed Seeing (Bartlett et al., 2012). Indeed, Indigenous Tayal—have contested the settler-sanctioned category of epistemologies and methodologies are deeply rooted in the Indigeneity and refused the state-imposed logics of local lands and people, transferring from one generation to Indigenous status (Wang, 2011). Traditionally, from the another. Yet, the cultural interface between Indigeneity and Tayal point of view, life itself came from the river that non-Indigeneity, as well as whiteness and non-whiteness, flows through the Tayal territory. In his study on the cultural has become blurred. Indigenous researchers are increasingly landscape of the Tayal people, Kuan (2013) suggests that trained in westernized universities and Indigenous the river not only represents a means of shared resources, methodologies as such are often designed within western but also binds the Tayal people together and that the river academic institutions (Porsanger, 2004). This indicates itself represents a shared language, blood and memories. rather than pursuing a timeless and culturally pure The Tayal people retained their autonomy in the Indigeneity, a conceptualization of decolonization that is mountains, in spite of Chinese settler colonization in the situated in the interface between Indigenous and non- plains, until the end of the 19th century. In 1895, Taiwan Indigenous relations should be the goal. This is echoed in was ceded from the Qing to Japan as a result of the treaty of the case of Tayal (an Indigenous People in Taiwan) land Shimonoseki, and Japan quickly imposed militaristic stewardship (Acabado & Kuan, 2021). colonization, featuring “armed bunkers, relay stations, and Thus, while we agree that Indigenous scholars should be guard posts along a scorched-earth trail known as the central in designing, leading, doing and conveying research aiyūsen (military guard line) to enclose the Atayal [Tayal] on Indigenous issues (Denzin et al., 2008; Kovach, 2009; settlements of Northern Taiwan” (Barclay, 2017, p. 39), Smith, 2012; Wilson, 2008), it is also important to foster followed by economic and spiritual colonization. The collaboration with non-Indigenous scholars, practitioners Kuomintang Government continued the Japanese colonial and activists (Brannelly & Boulton, 2017). Everyone fully system after 1945, repressed Tayal advocates for self- committed to the decolonizing goal, in other words, should awareness, self-governance and self-defense, and executed be welcome to be involved in promoting Indigenous agenda Indigenous intellectuals such as Tayal political activist and collaborate on the shared concerns (Smith, 2012), Losin Watan (Kuan, 2016). These waves of colonialism in including Indigenous methodologies. Currently, however, Taiwan have severely affected the Indigenous peoples. In early career researchers may experience much of the existing light of the democratization process and the establishment literature on Indigenous research methodologies as of the Indigenous movement from the 1980s onwards, there perplexing and complex, for instance, regarding how to is an emerging trend for Indigenous peoples to regain power navigate between issues such as authenticity, legitimacy and and to refuse settler colonial logic in Taiwan (Acabado & power (Neeganagwedgin, 2015; Snow, 2018). Consequently, Kuan, 2021; Yapu, 2005). Similar trends of self- the barrier may be high, especially among early career determination are taking place in other parts of the world researchers of non-Indigenous or mixed ethnic backgrounds (Simpson, 2014). The ongoing decolonization process who may wonder if they are Indigenous enough to be includes, for example, developing Indigenous-based school entitled to use Indigenous research methodologies at all. curricula (Shih & Tsai, 2021), interrupting settler land This study aims to lower the entry barrier to Indigenous ownership claims (Acabado & Kuan, 2021), repositioning methodologies for anyone wholeheartedly committed to social work in the context of historical trauma (Teyra & contributing to the decolonizing processes. We will do this Hsieh, 2022) as well as re-inventing research methodologies by highlighting the main challenges experienced by the to disrupt positivist research approaches seen “through first author during her doctoral journey (Gao, 2021). We imperial eyes” (Smith, 2012, p. 44). ask the following: Which phases could be identified in the research process of Wasiq Silan when returning to her Decolonizing research: theoretical childhood community to explore perceptions and practices reflections of aging and elderly care, and which lessons can be learned? This article utilizes the story of the first author, who For the past decades, various disciplines have become belongs to the Tayal Indigenous community in Taiwan to disillusioned with the universal standard of inquiry that analyze the complex negotiations of Indigenous Tayal builds narrowly on positivism, deductive reasoning and heritage and ongoing colonial ideologies that played out objectivity informed by natural sciences (Flyvbjerg, 2001; during her doctoral process. Examples from her research Harding, 2004). A positivist scientific approach is journey are used to illustrate how other early career problematic because it claims to hold “a monopoly researchers may navigate the intricacies of engaging with concerning what is true and what is false,” and what is Indigenous methodologies. propagated as “superstition or ignorance” (Helander- Renvall, 2016, p. 63). This hierarchical tradition of placing western knowledge over Indigenous knowledge formed the The Tayal basis of justifying assimilation policies, and even cultural The Tayal are one of the Austronesian peoples who have genocide (Francis, 1998; Skutnabb-Kangas et al., 2016). been inhabiting Taiwan for thousands of years. By mid Under these circumstances, it is imperative to be critical of 2022, the census registration made by the settler Taiwanese the epistemological framework that informs us what reality government indicated that the number of pan-Tayal— or truth is, and how we gain knowledge about it. namely the Tayal, Seediq and Truku—was approximately Indigenous research methodologies are one of the 138,000, however, Indigenous peoples—including the critical voices challenging positivist science (K. L. Braun Silan and Munkejord 3 et al., 2014). The key role of the Indigenous research first author’s personal fieldnotes and reflection diaries as paradigm is to strengthen the knowledge production of well as interview transcripts from her fieldwork in the Tayal Indigenous peoples and build conceptual and ethical territory from 2015 to 2018. Although the analysis, as well frameworks, and that contribute to decolonizing Indigenous as the writing and revisions of this article, were done in communities. The Indigenous research paradigm has drawn collaboration with the second author, this article will inspiration from other interpretive traditions that share describe the phases identified and the lessons learned similar concerns, such as feminist standpoint theory during the doctoral fieldwork of Wasiq Silan; we decided (Haraway, 2004; Harding, 2004), postcolonial studies that from here on, this article will be written in the first- (Said, 1978) and anti-oppressive practice (Baines, 2017; person voice of the first author. Strega & Brown, 2015). These perspectives honor multiple A reflexive, thematic approach was used to analyze the truths and challenge the dominant power relations by field notes and diary entries (V. Braun & Clarke, 2006). First, engaging with the margin, the other, the situational or the I discussed the emotion in a transparent way with my embodied “self-in-relation” (Graveline, 1998, p. 57). co-author, talking about how I felt like a fresh doctoral Moreover, they raise the awareness of power, hegemony, student, and how I gradually developed an increasing colonialization, racism and oppression that the dominant assertiveness about myself and my PhD project. After several knowledge practice often denies (Alular-Meyer, 2008). rounds of analysis and discussions, four main themes or phases during my doctoral fieldwork, were identified: (1) the colonial gaze, encountering ongoing coloniality through Methodologies: approaches and shame and mistrust, (2) battling with the concept of reflections authenticity, (3) recognizing Indigeneity in the ordinary, and (4) reconciliation with the past to pave the way toward a Design and empirical material better future. In practice, these phases were not linear from To answer our research question, a qualitative, interpretative points A to B, but rather recursive (V. Braun & Clarke, 2006). research design was chosen. The analysis was based on the The phases are illustrated in Figure 1. Figure 1. Steps of decolonizing the researcher, visualized as pinhkngyan (Designed by Wasiq Silan). Tayal = an Indigenous People in Taiwan. I can add that during the first round of analysis, I accountability was helpful. Relational accountability tried to focus on my fluid and nonlinear relationships means being aware of one’s responsibility and ethical with the Bbnkis, which means Elders in Tayal language. obligations in conducting research in the Indigenous In this regard, Wilson’s (2008) notion of relational community. 4 AlterNative 00(0) (Smith, 2012). I also prepared myself for fieldwork by Positioning the author team learning some Tayal language to show respect and honor the To position myself, I can say that my own lineage stems cultural protocols in the community (Datta, 2018). from the mountains of Pinsbkan. I grew up in my paternal The first thing I did upon arrival in the Tayal community grandmother’s birthplace south of Taiwan’s capital, Taipei, was to establish a reference group of Bbnkis (Elders), who and I am now, after periods of doubt and insecurity, a were invited to act as co-researchers or partners to guide proud descendant of Tayal from the Taranan river valley. my research goals and priorities. As the reference group My father was raised in a mixed family of a Chinese father was quite positive about my research topic, I thought that and a Tayal mother, and my mother was raised in a mixed the Bbnkis would be happy that a researcher with Tayal family of a Chinese father and a Hakka mother. Colonization heritage would be interested in making their voices heard. I of Taiwan by the Japanese (1895–1945) and the was therefore a bit perplexed to discover that the Bbnkis Kuomintang’s one-party rule (1945–1980s) aimed to were reluctant to talk about Indigenous issues with me. For eradicate the cultural identities and languages of local instance, when I asked them to teach me some more Tayal peoples in Taiwan. Therefore, my active engagement with concepts, they sometimes just stared at me, and when I critical social work validated what I intuitively knew asked questions about Tayal traditional knowledge, they regarding the way in which these forcefully removed did not answer, or even looked amused as if they thought I identities had become an ongoing struggle for people like was joking. Faced with this situation, I anxiously concluded me. Thus, this article is not only a research article but it that probably, I had not quite understood how to successfully also speaks to my own personal process of developing an collect data in an Indigenous context. onto-epistemological positioning of becoming a Tayal A few weeks later, however, I realized there was an researcher, “my own awakening” so to speak (Aluli-Meyer, elephant in the room, something bigger than me not having 2013, pp. 251–252). The second author of this article is of understood how to be a good researcher. In fact, the Bbnkis majority ethnic background living and working in one of in the local day club for older people that I continued to the Nordic countries. She has a wholehearted interest in visit, gradually shared that they were confused by someone critical social research and aims to contribute to social like me—a smart student at university with a prosperous justice for vulnerable groups, including Indigenous future spending so much time in their midst; why are you peoples, frail older people or persons who for various even here? they repeatedly asked me. Or don’t you have reasons are excluded from the labor market. We have better things to do? I soon understood that these questions collaborated closely for more than 3 years in designing were genuine concerns on their part. They also took the research projects, gaining knowledge, analyzing and time to kindly explain to me that there is nothing valuable thinking along with the empirical material from the field, here in the village, so don’t waste your time here. and communicating our findings to a wider audience. Phase 2: battling with the idea of Indigenous Doing fieldwork in Indigenous authenticity communities: outline the four Phase 2 began when I had struggled for quite a while to phases of my research process obtain meaningful data material about aging and culturally safe elderly care from the Bbnkis’ perspective. In addition to In the following, I will present the four phases identified telling me that I was wasting my time, I felt that they when analyzing the empirical material, such as fieldnotes, questioned my authenticity; I had a long university education reflections and transcriptions from my doctoral studies. and I had settled abroad. Thus, according to several of the These phases can be conceptualized by the Tayal concept of Bbnkis in the Day Club, I did not live a true Tayal life, and pinhkngyan, or the path taken (Figure 1). therefore, I was not a real Tayal. In addition, I did not look Tayal! This was expressed, when one of the Bbnkis, over a Phase 1: the colonial gaze—encountering cup of maqaw (Litsea cubeba; a deciduous shrub, also ongoing coloniality through shame and known as mountain pepper) tea, looked into my face, and mistrust concluded that I did not have any traces of the proud Tayal ancestors as I was far too pale (W. Nomin, Tayal entrepreneur In my Master’s thesis, I got interested in Indigenous health in his early 60s). When I explained that even though I grew and well-being by exploring the notion of life expectancy up in Tayal community, only my father was Tayal, and that gap and disadvantaged health. Soon after finishing my even my father was of mixed heritage as my grandfather Masters, I decided to pursue my research interest by diving was Chinese, the Bbnkis declared. “Well, that explains it. deeper into the topic of social justice in long-term care for You are not pure. You’re only one-fourth Tayal!” Moreover, the Indigenous peoples, with an empirical focus on my during my fieldwork, it happened that some of the Bbnkis grandmother’s people, the Tayal. Before entering the field, I and others in the community sometimes asked me whether I had read about the effect of harsh assimilative policies and spoke fluent Tayal, or if I was at least able to recognize some the destructive aftermath on Indigenous well-being and of the plants, animals, and trees in the Tayal forests. Having health, outlined for example by the literature on historical to answer no to both questions increased my doubt about my trauma (Walters et al., 2011), and I had read about the ethical right to claim to be Tayal at all. problems that Indigenous peoples around the world encounter Silan and Munkejord 5 I hesitantly decided to share some concerns about this in a conference when in the intersection between phases 2 issue with a Paiwan researcher. I expected him to be and 3, for instance, took the time to truly listen to my supportive, but instead he commented, “You’ve not been worries. She responded with empathy and shared that her accepted yet by your community, have you?” (V. Gadu, own parents had been ashamed of being Indigenous, Paiwan researcher in his early 50s). His question caught me whereas her own grandchildren were very proud of their off guard. I felt both hurt and confused. Later, he explained Indigenous heritage (A. Fuga, Kanaka Maoli mother, that the question he posed had been on his own mind for grandmother and activist in her 70s). I also spoke with more than 20 years, as he himself was still not fully accepted Sámi (an Indigenous People living in Finland, Norway, by the Elders of his people. For him, being accepted was Sweden and North-West Russia) researchers in different still an ongoing battle. parts of Sápmi (the land of the Sámi People living in At the same time, as my authenticity was questioned, I Norway, Sweden, Finland and North-West Russia), who felt lost and stuck in disjuncture between what I expected nodded as they shared similar experiences. Hildá, a the Bbnkis to share with me, and what they actually pseudonym, told me that her mother was frustrated when shared. I, therefore, continued to feel that the methods and she learned that her grandchildren were learning to speak theories that I had learned during my university education Sámi, calling it “a waste of time.” Another Sámi researcher, somehow did not seem to work. In addition, I received Ellen Marie Jensen, told me that a few months before her comments from different persons that made me doubt not grandmother passed away, the grandmother had shared that only myself and my methods but also my research idea. she had decided not to pass the Sámi language and identity Did the older people in the village even have traditional on to her children: to protect the next generation from the Tayal knowledge to share with me about my research traumas she herself had experienced as a Sámi child in a theme? I turned to a senior non-Indigenous scholar who local school under heavy Norwegianization policy where had extensive experience working in Taiwan’s Indigenous her mother tongue, Sámi, was banned. The grandmother communities for help. I was baffled to hear him suggest shared that she still remembered the fear and shock when that I conduct research in other Indigenous communities being taught by teachers from the majority society in a with less influence and contact with the outside world. He foreign language she took years to learn. Through these commented that “there is no value in researching the care shared narratives, I understood that transformation, and practices in your village, the old people there are too reclaiming Indigenous identities is indeed possible even Sinicized” (A. Wang, Han Chinese project leader in his after generations of colonialism. That contributed to sparks 50s). This idea was also echoed within the community, by of trust and hope. Besu Iban, a community leader, who commented, In phase 3, I also gradually understood that as a researcher, I needed to cultivate patience and humility. This village was assimilated way back when tourism came. Vicki-Ann Speechley-Golden, an educator and grandmother They [Bbnkis] have lost their traditional culture. They only from the Australian Yuin Aboriginal People, South Coast, care about money. [He looked at me and sighed] Even in my New South Wales, cautioned me that sensing and adapting generation, we know very little, not to mention in your to the rhythm of the Bbnkis was crucial. The small snatches generation. (B. Iban, community leader, Tayal man in his of talk that they brought up could perhaps be interpreted as late 50s) pre-talks to test whether I could be considered ready to Tayal culture was talked about as something that was listen to their stories with an open heart. I thus realized that already lost and gone. Speaking frankly, for me, phase 2 although the Bbnkis had not spoken at length about Tayal was when I almost gave up the whole idea of my PhD. traditional knowledge as I had expected earlier, I started my fieldwork, I understood that the ways they experienced and conceptualized the world nevertheless was based on their Phase 3: recognizing Indigeneity in the Tayal ways of being and knowing, including the traditional ordinary Tayal law called Gaga, which we have described in more Phase 3 began with a gradual sense of relief when I finally detail elsewhere (Gao, 2021; Silan & Munkejord, 2022). started to connect the dots through actively engaging in Thus, in phase 3, I started to learn more just from conversations with my grandmother and other Bbnkis to observing the ways the Bbnkis interacted with each other. heal some of the layered disconnections in my own mind. I For instance, on the individual level, I noticed that according also engaged in a more honest, open-minded and reflective to the Bbnkis, being Tayal meant to be qnyat (hardworking), journaling. I understood that the reluctance of the Bbnkis to lokah tzywaw (industrious) and ini psayu’ (not speaking ill share their knowledge with me could be interpreted as a of others). On the relational level, I noticed the significance silent consequence of ongoing colonialism and the traumas of the Tayal notion cisan, meaning storytelling, which is it was still causing. This awareness gradually arose in me as also a form of socializing and relationship building, whereas the result of several compassionate encounters with other the Tayal notion rgyax (mountain), often conveyed in musa’ Indigenous scholars who were willing to listen and share saku’ rgyax (going to the mountain) meant the deep their own vulnerabilities and doubts, and how they had connection the Tayal have with the land. On an ethical overcome them. They also shared their own family’s lived level, I learned the concept of malahang, which meant care, experiences of colonialism. An Elder who was Kanaka caring and governing by keeping the balance between the Maoli (the Indigenous people of Hawaii, USA) whom I met material and the spiritual world. Malahang, I came to 6 AlterNative 00(0) understand, could be maintained by planting vegetables, the significance of rgrgyax (going to the mountains; Silan & caring for children and attending the local church. Munkejord, 2022). In sum, I went through a personal restorative process of In Phase 4, a sense of pride and confidence started to glow contributing to healing the wounds of colonial traumas in me because I had walked through the valleys of despair and imposed on the Tayal people by being increasingly open doubt. Moreover, I began the process of reconfiguring power about both my personal challenges, and by continuously relations and methodological questions in my research. I also listening to and storytelling with mentors, advisors, peers, started to ponder on questions such as who owns research- young people and, of course, the Bbnkis themselves. Phase based knowledge, whose interests does research knowledge 3, in other words, was about recognizing myself and the serve, who will benefit from it and how to make Indigenous Indigeneity of the Tayal people despite generations of Methodologies more inclusive (Porsanger, 2004; Smith, colonialism; it was about reconnecting with the past and 2012). reclaiming the present. It was also about building trust. Discussion Phase 4: reconciliation with the past to pave This article highlights how I navigated the issues of the way toward a better future Indigeneity, authenticity and legitimacy. My path Phase 4 began when I was able to transform my own self- demonstrates the challenges I experienced when entering doubt into recognition of the Indigeneity both within a field where colonization was still ongoing. In the myself and within the Bbnkis. With increased confidence, following, I will discuss the following three main lessons I understood that when at the beginning of my fieldwork, we can learn from this study; they are reflections related the Bbnkis had constantly asked me why I was there, they to (1) recognizing myself and being recognized as an had intended to protect me from the harm they themselves Indigenous insider, (2) doing Indigenous research by had endured in terms of racism, dispossession, using existing Indigenous perspectives and methodologies stigmatization, marginalization and learned helplessness. and (3) developing Indigenous methodologies by aligning Simultaneously, I came to terms with myself: I initiated a with the ways of knowing and being in the specific process of forgiving myself for being overwhelmed by a community where the research is done. tide of guilt, doubt and shame during the first phases of my fieldwork. I also came to terms with being an authentic How to recognize oneself as an insider in Tayal in my own way, despite the ongoing comments from an Indigenous context others based on my too pale skin color, partial cultural inheritance according to the logic of purity, as well as on The first lesson that I learned is that one cannot take my accent when speaking Tayal, a language I had not Indigeneity or even insider-ness for granted. Even though I learned as a child. In this phase, I realized that being an grew up with Tayal relatives in my grandmother’s ancestral authentic Tayal did not necessitate going back to the village, and had Tayal status printed on my ID, it took a original way of life hundreds of years ago before the first long time of fieldwork until I recognized myself, and was colonizers arrived in Tayal territory. Rather, it was about recognized by others, as an insider. In line with Hawaiian reclaiming and even renewing the knowledge, culture and epistemologist Aluli-Meyer (2013), I gradually understood language shared by the Bbnkis in the here and now. that being Tayal, or staying true to Tayal ancestry, is not a I looked back on the paths taken, pinhkngyan, where the what question, but a how question. One is not simply born Bbnkis had walked alongside with me in reflecting and as an Indigenous person, let alone an “Indigenous knower” thinking. I realized that maki nanak Gaga nya, Gaga, the (Gone, 2019, p. 49). Tayal way of knowing, exists in everything. In my case, At the beginning of my fieldwork, I was not accepted by everything I had encountered during my fieldwork so far, the Bbnkis, who kept a distance, perhaps to save me from and all the paths taken, had contained the Tayal law Gaga, ruining my academic career. This distance or silence was whether I was aware of it or not. Through interacting with the no doubt grounded on multiple layers of trauma that had Bbnkis, I become aware that exploring care in the Tayal imposed on them a sense of being impure and inauthentic community was not about discovering a single truth, rather, (Harris et al., 2013), or even urbanized or Sinisized. Faced it was about situated knowledge and Gaga-centered with such trauma, we need to open up our conceptions of relationships. Gaga, in fact, refers to the morality, cosmology what Indigenous authenticity is. Olsen (2017b) points out and balanced relationship between the Tayal and the that Indigeneity and non-Indigeneity “are not binaries. environment. It entails the ethical responsibility between There are spaces in between—in the cultural interface” different beings. The Bbnkis taught me that care in the Tayal (p. 211). In line with this, Blix describes how becoming and community is to re-orient us to Gaga. It means we can being accepted as an insider in the Sámi community was a establish relationships with humans, animals, land, rivers, long and slow process of becoming for herself and her fish, grain and all entities in an ethical way that could sustain children—which required breaking silences across everything and make all things flourish in the web of life. In generations (Blix et al., 2021). this phase, I started to fully understandsome of the Tayal key In sum, the first lesson I want to share with you is that tenets of care in the Tayal community in more detail and in Indigenous insider should not be taken at face value. The relation to each other, such as hmali’ (Tayal language) and space in-between cultures (Kaomea, 2004) and even among Silan and Munkejord 7 Indigenous researchers could be intricate (Silan & Mataira, How to contribute to the development of 2019). The genuine meaning of recognizing ourselves lies Indigenous research methodologies? in an act of allowing ourselves to become decolonizing, The third lesson we can learn from pinhkngyan relates to community-based researchers, privileging Indigenous the importance of openness during the research process. As research methodologies and community priorities. described in this article, it took me years to finally understand what the Bbnkis’ stories were truly about, How to use existing Indigenous perspectives probably because I expected them to tell me something and methodologies else. I expected the Bbnkis, to be knowledge-holders (Datta, 2018), or community leaders who would fight against The second lesson we can learn relates to daring to engage oppression with a unified and strong voice. I expected that with and use Indigenous research methodologies in meaningful they would teach me how the Tayal build balanced ways. In my case, the four phases elaborated in this article relationship between plants and humans and shower me illustrate the transformative steps I took during my fieldwork. with Tayal mythologies and stories, so I would not have to These four phases, moreover, shed light on the significance of learn about the Tayal from museums, but directly learn reverence in Indigenous methodologies, as proposed by from them. This did not happen in the way I expected, Pidgeon (2019). Reverence refers to the importance of the though. The words of Shawn Wilson (2008) could almost researcher connecting to the spirituality within the Indigenous have been mine: community or worldview, and in so doing, establishing a genuine relationship to the field. Reverence, I argue, may The Elders never used to directly confront someone about a contribute to combating cognicentrism, which refers to the problem, or offer direct advice. Instead, the Elder would tell a deep-seated hostility within western knowledge paradigms story from their own life. . . . It was up to the listener to piece against ideas, concepts and knowledge outside of one’s own together a lesson from the story and to apply the pieces where realm of experience (Glass-Coffin & Kiiskeentum, 2012). they fit to help in the current problem. (pp. 27–28) Reverence not only refers to recognizing the quality of sacred Indigenous knowledge (Pidgeon, 2019), but also includes If I had been more open and had listened to Bbnkis’ indirect recognizing the significance of more mundane moments of stories as piecing together a puzzle, I would probably have everyday life (Barnes et al., 2017). understood what the Bbnkis told me much earlier. In addition, it is important to reiterate that decolonizing But, what does being more open mean? While doing this Indigenous methodologies should be developed in an study, I came to understand that I needed to let go of my inclusive manner between Indigenous and non-Indigenous assumptions and preconceptions, and rather observe and researchers and potentially also activists (Brannelly & learn from the Bbnkis’ actual doing, speaking and thinking, Boulton, 2017). On one hand, non-Indigenous scholars and as well as from their values, beliefs and spiritual experiences students should decenter, and consciously place themselves rooted in their own space and time, expressed in their own outside the privileged position (Olsen, 2017b, p. 212), so that way. Thus, to be more open means to embody self-in- the research can be done in different and various ways that relations (Graveline, 1998), to embrace wholism (Absolon, would benefit Indigenous peoples, who are ultimately 2010) and to cultivate a level of corporeal experience heterogeneous (Skille, 2021). On the other hand, Indigenous (Bishop, 1999). For me, this meant gradually becoming scholars need to cultivate skills to identify whether settler physically, intellectually, emotionally, morally, ethically and researchers honor the vision of Indigenous peoples and spiritually ready to engage in the co-production of knowledge. ground themselves in the principles outlined by Indigenous Instead of talking about my research, my idea, my PhD, the peoples (Hart et al., 2017). Together, this inclusive Indigenous research should always begin with seeing if the relationship in developing decolonizing Indigenous study is wanted or needed by the community. My focus on methodologies has the potential to carve out more space for my study in the beginning of my PhD journey can probably a collective story based on Indigenous knowing despite the explain parts of the challenges I experienced, until I was able rules of the academy (Lavallée, 2009). This relationship also to reconnect, and thus obtain a more honest, open minded ultimately challenges the Euro-American ethnocentricity of and reflexive presence in the community. In that way, my positivistic paradigms (K. L. Braun et al., 2014). study gradually became a collective undertaking in phase 3. The phases elaborated in this article, moreover, illustrate Moreover, while developing Indigenous research that the core of Indigenous research methodologies is about methodologies may seem specific and local, the implications using Indigenous research. It is about growing to be more are general and global. Developing Indigenous research aware of the paths taken and the reverence cultivated along methodologies is to defend Indigenous self-determination with each step, and ultimately becoming more aligned to and sovereignty. It is a way to actively refuse western the aims of the decolonization of Indigenous communities. positivist theories and methods as they uproot Indigenous The four phases demonstrate a pathway for how to engage cultures, knowledges and worldviews by labeling Indigenous more confidently with the process of decolonization. They systems as primitive. In other words, developing Indigenous also demonstrate, as Shawn Wilson (2008) who is an research methodologies has its distinctive genealogy. Thus, Opaskwayak Cree from northern Manitoba, Canada, has in line with The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of noted, “If research doesn’t change you as a person, then Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP), I argue that “any research you haven’t done it right” (p. 135). involving Indigenous peoples should support Indigenous 8 AlterNative 00(0) peoples’ pursuit of self-determination” (McGregor, 2018, Indigenous communities, counter migration to rural areas, sense of place, family care, formal care services, but also on immigrant pp. 300–301). Developing Indigenous methodologies in entrepreneurship, work inclusion and public sector innovation. Critical Social Work and beyond is an active act of decolonization, both in terms of (1) deconstructing Acknowledgements coloniality and the colonial ideology of superiority that used to dominate research about Indigenous peoples and (2) The authors express their gratitude and humility to rhiyal, hllahuy, reconciling relationships between Indigenous and non- llyung, hlaqiy, bbehuy, tqinuw, syax wagi ki syax byacing: the land, forests, rivers, snow, wind, and mushrooms, sunshine and moonlight. Indigenous worldviews and ways of knowing. They are deeply grateful to those—elders and youth, women and men, Indigenous and non-Indigenous scholars and practitioners— Conclusion who have committed themselves to pinhkngyan, paths to recognize, doing and developing Indigenous methodologies. This article has focused on the four phases I experienced during my doctoral journey and the lessons learned. The Declaration of conflicting interests four phases include passing from the colonial gaze where I The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect encountered ongoing coloniality through shame and to the research, authorship and publication of this article. mistrust; the phase where I battled with the concept of authenticity, through the phase where I started to recognize Funding Tayal Indigeneity in the ordinary, before finally, being able The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support to reconcile with the past at both a personal level and at the for the research, authorship and publication of this article: community level. In the discussion, I reflect on how to Norwegian Research Council (287301); Norway Centre for recognize oneself as an insider in an Indigenous context, Research Data (577949). how to use existing Indigenous perspectives and methodologies and how to contribute to the development ORCID iDs of Indigenous methodologies. Simultaneously, the article Wasiq Silan https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8242-8785 highlights my process of gradually recognizing myself and Mai Camilla Munkejord https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5700- being recognized as a real Tayal despite my pale looks, as well as recognizing myself and being recognized as an Indigenous scholar. Glossary Ultimately, Indigenous research methodologies are about establishing an ethical space (Ermine, 2007) between Tayal language Indigenous and academic ways of knowing with the aim of Bbnkis Elders cisan storytelling; visiting, socializing, building making a roadmap for a better, shared future. My hope, in relationship this regard, is to engage students and researchers to enter Gaga the Tayal Law; moral order; sacred law this ethical space, and in that way, to contribute to the and cosmology, which entails balanced decolonizing processes of Indigenous and majority relationship between people and the communities worldwide. If not you, who? And if not now, environment; the center of life when? hmali’ tongue; Tayal language ini psayu’ not speaking ill of others This story is about listening, recognizing, reclaiming, lokah tzywaw industrious becoming, and doing. So, go back to the community that maki nanak Gaga nya Gaga exists in everything calls upon you. Celebrate the process of doubt when maqaw Litsea cubeba; a deciduous shrub, also feeling stuck or in-between. Find strength in becoming an known as mountain pepper malahang care and caring between people, humans, insider. If not you, who? And if not now, when? animals and with land —Untitled poem by Wasiq Silan, first author, written musa’ saku’ rgyax going to the mountain in collaboration with Mai Camilla Munkejord, pinhkngyan path taken second author qnyat hardworking rgyax mountain rgrgyax mountains Authors’ note Chinese language Wasiq Silan (PhD) is a Tayal from llyung Taranan (river Taranan) Kuomintang Chinese Nationalist Party in Wulai, Taiwan, who has also published under her Mandarin Japanese language name I-An Gao. She works as a Core Fellow at the Helsinki aiyūsen military guard line Collegium for Advanced Studies at the University of Helsinki. Sámi language Her research and teaching focus on developing sustainable Sápmi the land of the Sámi People living in quality-of-life care systems, decolonization, health and well-being Norway, Sweden, Finland and North-West as well as aging and care in Indigenous communities. Russia Mai Camilla Munkejord (PhD) works as a Postdoctoral Indigenous Peoples Researcher at the Centre for Care Research, West at the Western Kanaka Maoli the Indigenous people of Hawaii, USA Norway University of Applied Sciences. Munkejord has published Opaskwayak Cree an Indigenous People living in Canada widely on themes such as aging and well-being in rural and Paiwan an Indigenous People in Taiwan Silan and Munkejord 9 Sámi an Indigenous People living in Finland, Datta, R. (2018). Decolonizing both researcher and research and Norway, Sweden and North-West Russia its effectiveness in Indigenous research. Research Ethics, Seediq an Indigenous People in Taiwan 14(2), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016117733296 Tayal; Atayal an Indigenous People in Taiwan who speak Denzin, N., Lincoln, Y., & Smith, T. L. (Eds.). (2008). Handbook the Tayal language of critical and Indigenous methodologies. SAGE. https://doi. 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Journal

AlterNativeSAGE

Published: Jun 1, 2023

Keywords: decolonization; Indigeneity; insider; non-Indigenous researcher; positionality; Tayal

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