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The material deformation behaviour during the innovative SPD process called DRECE (Dual Rolls Equal Channel Extrusion) has been analysed by FEM simulations. In the process, a workpiece in the form of a strip is subjected to plastic deforma- tion by passing through the angular channel; however, the workpiece dimensions remain the same after a pass is finished. Performing consecutive passes allow for increasing the effective strain in the material to a required level. In the conducted simulations two various channel angles (108° and 113°) have been taken into consideration, as well as two processing routes, A and C (without and with turning the strip upside-down between consecutive passes, respectively). The analysis of simula- tion results has revealed that significant strain and stress inhomogeneities across the strip thickness are generated in a single DRECE pass. The die design (the inner and outer corner radius) and friction conditions affect the material flow, reducing significantly the shear strain in the near-surface regions of the strip. The strain inhomogeneity can be effectively reduced by choosing the processing route C. The strain distributions and the corresponding tensile test results have confirmed that the smaller channel die angle allows to generate larger strain and higher strength of the strip but also reduces its ductility more than the die setup with the larger channel die angle. Keywords Severe plastic deformation · DRECE · ECAP · Angular channel extrusion · Processing route · Finite element analysis 1 Introduction (SPD) methods to date has evolved: high-pressure torsion (HPT) [4] and equal channel angular extrusion (ECAE) — The enormous effect of intensive plastic deformation on the method known also as equal channel angular pressing material properties has been already recognized in ancient (ECAP) [5]. The development of new, sophisticated analyti- China [1]. A process consisting of repetitive forging and cal and microscopic tools (e.g. HRTEM—High-Resolution folding was practically used, later also in Japan, India [2] Transmission Electron Microscopy, EBSD—Electron Back- and the Middle East [3], mostly to produce durable swords. scatter Diffraction, OIM—Orientation Imaging Microscopy, However, the fundamental principle of this technology was and modern X-ray techniques) in the 1980s initiated the so- ultimately lost in the middle of the eighteenth century. And it called microstructural age because it provided an opportu- was not until the so-called scientific age in the twentieth cen- nity to evaluate the microstructures of materials processed tury that the two most recognized severe plastic deformation using SPD techniques [6]. It has caused a growing interest in this field and a great number of the SPD concepts have been developed in the last three decades. Bagherpour et al. [7] * Marek Tkocz have classified so far about 120 techniques intended for vari- marek.tkocz@polsl.pl ous workpiece geometries. Although they all allow obtain- Faculty of Materials Engineering, Silesian University ing the large accumulated effective total strain, they utilize of Technology, Krasińskiego 8, 40-019 Katowice, Poland different deformation modes (from simple shear to pure Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Lublin University shear), as well as various loading: monotonic or non-mono- of Technology, Nadbystrzycka 36, 20-618 Lublin, Poland tonic, cyclic change of strain path. Despite a vast amount Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Wroclaw of academic studies based on laboratory-scale experiments, University of Science and Technology, Łukasiewicza 5, SPD methods are still rarely used in industrial practice due 50-371 Wrocław, Poland Vol.:(0123456789) 1 3 145 Page 2 of 10 Archives of Civil and Mechanical Engineering (2023) 23:145 to various technical difficulties, complexity, high produc- The method was tested on various materials such as alu- tion costs and limited potential to scale up [8]. However, minium alloys [20], brass [21] and low-carbon steel [22]. it was proved many times that such processing consider- In general, the results obtained have shown improvement ably changes the functional properties of products and thus, in the mechanical properties of the investigated strips. The greatly expands their application potential [9]. effect of consecutive DRECE passes on the low-carbon steel Among a variety of SPD techniques, the following ones microstructure, properties, as well as selected results of cor- are particularly interesting in terms of sheet metal process- responding numerical simulations, have been presented in ing: accumulated roll bonding (ARB) [10], asymmetric roll- [23]. ing with rolls of different diameters [ 11], asymmetric roll- As the finite element method seems to be a very well- ing with various rolls velocity [12], asymmetric ARB [13], developed and frequently used method for solving the issues repetitive corrugation-straightening (RCS) [14], constrained concerned with classic metal forming processes, there are groove pressing (CGP) [15], equal-channel angular sheet also many papers presenting FE analysis of various SPD extrusion (ECASE) [16], conshearing [17], continuous con- techniques. Most of the reported numerical investigations fined strip shearing (C2S2) [18] and dual rolls equal channel concern the classical ECAP process issues. For instance, extrusion (DRECE) [19]. Yoon et al. [24] analysed the effect of outer die angle and The original laboratory device for the last method men- material strain hardenability on material flow and strain het- tioned above (DRECE) was constructed in 2009 at VSB— erogeneity. Sordi et al. [25] evaluated the influence of die Technical University of Ostrava, Czech Republic (Fig. 1). design on pressure forces, strain homogeneity and corner The method combines the concepts of ECAP and Conform gap formation. Pesin et al. [26] used numerical simulations extrusion, and is intended for processing sheet-metal work- to explain the differences in deformation modes occurring in pieces. A metal strip is introduced into the deformation zone the ECAP process and both symmetric and asymmetric roll- through the gap between the main roll and the feed rolls and ing. Although the effective strain in analysed cases of ECAP then it passes through the channel with a specific angle Φ and symmetric rolling was similar, in the SPD method it between the upper and lower die. The strip does not change was generated by simple shear while during rolling – by dimensions after deformation. The friction force necessary pure shear. It should be noted here that simple shear is the to transport the strip between the rolls is generated by the deformation mode that involves rotation of the axes of the controlled pressure exerted on the feed rolls by hydraulic strain ellipsoid which leads to the formation of high angle actuators. The supporting tool and the upper die support boundaries and thus to grain refinement. The pure shear ensure the correct guidance of the strip between the rolls mode doesn’t involve such a rotation. Conducting asym- during the process. metric rolling by differing the roll velocities changes the Fig. 1 A schematic representation of the DRECE device with the angular channel dimensions analysed in the paper (Φ = 108° or 113°) 1 3 Archives of Civil and Mechanical Engineering (2023) 23:145 Page 3 of 10 145 deformation mode from pure shear to simultaneous pure and simple shear. It was found that four times greater effective strain can be obtained in the strip this way and grain refine- ment is possible as well. Rahimi et al. [27] compared the other two promising severe plastic deformation techniques for sheet metallic materials: repetitive corrugation-straight- ening (RCS) and constrained groove pressing (CGP). The study conducted for pure aluminium revealed that the die filling ratio, as well as the effective strain and its homogene- ity, are higher for CGP. Results presented in [23, 28] have suggested that FE mod- elling can give a useful insight into issues related to the DRECE process as well. Therefore, in the present study, FEM was used to analyse the effect of selected process con- ditions on the material flow and the state of stress in the low-carbon steel strips subjected to the consecutive passes of the DRECE process. 2 Description of the DRECE numerical model A specialized metal-forming FEM software Simufact.Form- ing 15 was used for conducting numerical simulations of the DRECE process. Four cases, each of them combining 6 Fig. 2 Two different processing routes applied in the analysed consecutive DRECE passes (a combination of two process- DRECE cases ing routes and two channel angles) have been investigated. Taking into consideration the nomenclature commonly used for a description of ECAP processing routes [29], route A assumed that a steel strip was fed into the deformation gap keeping the same orientation of strip sides in the consecutive passes, while when route C was applied, the strip was turned upside down between consecutive passes (Fig. 2). Due to the obvious reason that there’s a sheet metal workpiece, B and B routes (turning of 90° in alternate directions or the same direction between passes, respectively) cannot be applied in the DRECE method. Fig. 3 The finite element mesh on the strip longitudinal section Geometric features of the model corresponded to the unique DRECE device in VSB Ostrava that is presented schematically in Fig. 1. Deformation of DC01 steel strips affect the flow stress (σ ) of the investigated steel. Moreover, with dimensions of 800 × 60 × 2 mm was taken into con- the heat dissipates quickly after the test and a consecutive sideration. Since there is no change in strip dimensions pass starts at the room temperature as well. Therefore, the during the process, it was assumed that 2D model of the Hollomon equation neglecting temperature effect has been strip longitudinal section is sufficient in this case and it can considered as a sufficient description of the steel cold defor - significantly reduce the computation time. 13,000 2D quad- mation behaviour in the analysed cases: shape elements were used for the discretization of the strip 0.24 = 561 ⋅ . (1) longitudinal section (Fig. 3). The average length of the ele- ment edge was ca. 0.15 mm. Due to the severe deformation of a strip, the remeshing procedure was launched every time The coefficients in Eq. (1) were determined specifi- the effective strain (ε ) increase of 0.4 has been reached. A cally for the investigated strip from the results of the uni- strip was defined as the elastic–plastic body while all tool- axial tensile test. The assumed values of DRECE process ing parts were treated as rigid bodies. Since the temperature parameters are collected in Table 1. Coulomb friction model rise reaches ca. 100 °C during a single pass, it’s too small to 1 3 145 Page 4 of 10 Archives of Civil and Mechanical Engineering (2023) 23:145 Table 1 DRECE process parameters used in the numerical simula- 3 Results and discussion tions During the DRECE pass, a strip is initially bent between the Main roll diameter D 198 mm main roll and the feed rolls. Due to the specific construction Feed rolls diameter d 118 mm of the DRECE device, there is a slight folding followed by Rotational speed of the main roll n 1 rpm upsetting of the strip in a place when it meets the upper Rotational speed of the feed rolls n 1.6 rpm die. This phenomenon was explained in the previous paper Linear speed of the strip V 10 mm/s [28]. When the strip meets the lower die, it is bent a little Force on the feed roll 1 P 11 kN in the opposite direction. Both compression and bending in Force on the feed roll 2 P 37 kN the inlet channel cause the initial plastic deformation of the Friction coefficient on the strip-rolls interfaces 0.3 strip yet before it is subjected to deformation in the channel Friction coefficient on the strip-dies interfaces 0.1 intersection. The equivalent strain of ca. 0.2 is obtained in this phase of the process. with two different values of friction coefficient were used The intuitive and convenient way to evaluate the material to differentiate the contact conditions between a strip and flow during metal forming processes is an analysis of the various elements of the tooling. As the lubricant Gleit µ marking square grid distortions acquired by either physical HP 515 was used to reduce friction between the dies and a or numerical modelling together with stress and strain dis- strip in the experiments, the friction coefficient of 0.1 was tributions on the corresponding cross-sections [30]. There assumed to define contact conditions there. However, the are no distinct differences in grid distortions (Fig. 4) as well rolls with textured surface were used to improve transfer as in the stress distributions (Fig. 5) on the longitudinal sec- of a strip to the dies. To simulate this textured roll surface, tions of strips subjected to the analysed DRECE cases. The high value of friction coefficient (0.3) was assumed on the grid in the inlet channel is slightly distorted due to the rea- rolls-strip interfaces. sons explained above. Fig. 4 Marking grid distortion on the longitudinal section of the strip after the first DRECE pass conducted in dies with the channel angle of 108° and 113° Fig. 5 Distributions of the mean stress and the equivalent stress on the longitudinal section of the strip subjected to the first pass of DRECE pro- cess conducted in dies with the channel angle of 108° and 113° 1 3 Archives of Civil and Mechanical Engineering (2023) 23:145 Page 5 of 10 145 Three various regions can be distinguished across the which the refined microstructure can be hard to develop [26]. strip subjected to the individual DRECE pass, based on the In our cases, the region of low shear deformation close to grid distortions (Fig. 4). Inside the internal region (denoted the strip's upper surface takes up less than 1/6th of the strip with green colour), the square cells have been transformed thickness while the low shear deformation region near the into parallelograms with a rather tiny change in thickness. bottom surface is twice as thick as the upper one. It suggests that the simple shear has been a dominant defor- The studies of grid distortion and stress distributions are mation mode in this region, caused by the significant shear well reflected in the shear strain distributions on the strip stress occurring in the channel intersection (Fig. 6). As this longitudinal section after the first DRECE pass in both mode is found to be favourable for grain refinement [8 ], it is analysed dies (Figs. 7 and 8). Near the bottom and upper evident that the most distinct microstructural effects of this strip surfaces, the shear strain is significantly smaller. Dis- SPD method are expected in this region. The intense simple tributions are very similar for both cases studied. As was shear region takes up more than 50% of the strip thickness expected, a slightly higher maximum value of shear strain and is located closer to the upper strip surface. was obtained for the smaller channel die angle. However, Grid distortions (Fig. 4) and stress distributions (Fig. 6) the smaller shear strain inhomogeneity was achieved for the indicate that the shear stress at the channel intersection near bigger channel die angle. the upper strip surface is not so intense and is accompanied by the large positive longitudinal stress. The large positive shear stress is noticed at the channel intersection near the lower strip surface but in this case it follows after the large negative shear stess and is accompanied by the large nega- tive longitudinal stress. Similar grid distortions are typi- cal for ECAP and ECAP-like processes when the rounded dies are used. It is reported in numerous articles focused on the effect of ECAP die designs on the strain inhomogene- ity [24–26, 31–33]. While it was found that the round cor- ners are necessary for practical reasons (they are required to extrude a workpiece through the die channel and reduce forces), they create the low shear deformation regions in Fig. 6 Distributions of σ normal stress and τ shear stress on the Fig. 8 Distribution of the shear strain over the strip thickness after the x xz longitudinal section of the strip subjected to the first pass of the first DRECE pass conducted in dies with the channel angle of 108° DRECE process conducted in dies with the channel angle of 108° and 113° Fig. 7 Shear strain distribu- tion maps on the longitudinal section of the strip after the first DRECE pass conducted in dies with the channel angle of 108° and 113° 1 3 145 Page 6 of 10 Archives of Civil and Mechanical Engineering (2023) 23:145 The values of variables in Eqs. 2 and 3 as well as the calculated values of shear strain in a single pass of the analysed DRECE die setups are collected in Table 2. Both theoretical values slightly underestimate the peak shear strain obtained in simulations (γ ), however, they peak are much higher than the simulated average shear strain across the sheet thickness (γ ). The best correlation of avg results was obtained for the average values of shear strain obtained for the simple shear region (γ —denoted with avg-ssr green colour in Fig. 4), especially for the smaller channel Fig. 9 Schematic representation of the die setup variables required for die angle. the calculation of shear strain according to Perez equations The effective strain distribution on the strip longitudinal section after the first DRECE pass in the analysed dies Taking into account the similarity of the DRECE and (Figs. 10 and 11) differs significantly from the shear strain ECAP methods, it was found in the subject literature that the distribution. Neglecting the short (ca. 2–3 mm long) area shear strain for the idealized DRECE case can be calculated close to the head of the strip, it is evident that for both analytically. Based on the previous theoretical analyses of die channel angles analysed the effective strain maximum Segal [8] and Iwahashi et al. [34], Perez [35] developed for is obtained at the top surface while the minimum – near the ECAP process two useful equations that allow obtaining the bottom of the strip (but not exactly at the surface). the shear strain for different configurations of the die, where It comes from the fact that friction and bending play an inner and outer die radiuses (r, R, respectively), internal chan- important role in material deformation near the strip sur- nel die angle Φ as well as strip thickness t are variables. The faces. Relatively homogenous effective strain distribution outer corner angle (Fig. 9), denoted with the symbol x, can be is obtained in the internal region of the strip where the calculated from the formula: simple shear is dominant (denoted with green colour in Fig. 4). Similarly to the shear strain distributions, smaller (R − r)sin(Φ) x 1 tan = effective strain inhomogeneity across the entire strip thick - 2 2 Φ (2) t + (r − R)cos ness was obtained for the bigger channel die angle. The large strain inhomogeneity along the thickness is Having the outer corner angle given, the shear strain can observed in the strip subjected to the DRECE process uti- then be obtained from the expression: lizing route A (feeding the strip with no turning between consecutive passes). It raises with every consecutive pass sin and the character of the strain distribution remains stable Φ x = 2cot + + ( −Φ) (3) (Fig. 12). After six passes, the accumulated effective strain 2 2 x Φ x cos sin + near the upper strip surface is up to twice as much as near 2 2 2 the lower surface (Fig. 13). And again, the accumulated Table 2 Comparison of Geometric features of the channel intersection Analytic calculations Simulation results the shear strain calculated analytically (acc. to Perez Φ r R T x γ γ γ γ peak avg avg-ssr equations) with the simulation 108° 1 mm 2.2 mm 2 mm 39.59° 1.05 1.14 0.73 1.05 results in the analysed cases 113° 1 mm 2.2 mm 2 mm 37.34° 0.94 1.10 0.73 1.01 Fig. 10 Effective strain distribu- tion maps on the longitudinal section of the strip after the first DRECE pass conducted in dies with the channel angle of 108° and 113° 1 3 Archives of Civil and Mechanical Engineering (2023) 23:145 Page 7 of 10 145 Fig. 13 Distribution of the accumulated effective strain over the strip thickness after 6 DRECE passes conducted in dies with the chan- nel angle of 108° and 113° without turning the strip upside down Fig. 11 Distribution of the accumulated effective strain over the strip between consecutive passes (route A) thickness after the first DRECE pass conducted in dies with the chan- nel angle of 108° and 113° Fig. 12 Progression of the accumulated effective strain distribution on the longitudinal section of the strip subjected to the DRECE pro- cess conducted in dies with the channel angle of 108° Fig. 14 Progression of the accumulated effective strain distribution on the longitudinal section of the strip subjected to the DRECE pro- cess conducted in dies with the channel angle of 108° effective strain distribution is slightly more homogenous for the bigger channel die angle. The simulation results obtained for the route C cases prove that the effective strain inhomogeneity along the strip thickness can be significantly reduced when the strip is turned upside- down between consecutive DRECE passes (Fig. 14). After six by using route C, the desired microstructural SPD effects may passes, the accumulated effective strain within the range of 4.0 not be observed near strip surfaces, because in the outer strip to 4.7 and 4.0 to 4.5 was obtained for the channel die angles regions, especially near the outer die corner, the shearing effect of 108° and 113°, respectively (Fig. 15). However, although is significantly lower than in the internal region. the accumulated ee ff ctive strain can be nearly homogeneous 1 3 145 Page 8 of 10 Archives of Civil and Mechanical Engineering (2023) 23:145 Fig. 15 Distribution of the accumulated effective strain over the strip thickness after 6 DRECE passes conducted in dies with the channel angle of 108° and 113° with turning the strip upside down between consecutive passes (route C) 4 Comparison of strip properties As the simulation results revealed that the DRECE chan- nel angle affects the material deformation behaviour, it can influence the strip properties as well. To find it out, the static tensile tests have been conducted for the strips subjected to the experimental DRECE trials that corresponded to the simulation cases where the processing route A (no turning of a strip between the consecutive passes) was applied. The samples were cut out according to the extrusion direction. The relationship between the DRECE pass number and the mechanical properties of the strips deformed in both die setups is presented in Fig. 16. Although the character of changes is similar for both cases it is also evident that for the smaller channel angle, the higher strength and lower ductil- ity were obtained. The trend is consistent with the numerical results obtained for both the analysed channel die setups. 5 Summary and conclusions Fig. 16 An effect of the DRECE process on the mechanical proper - ties of strips passing through the dies with the channel angle of 108° The finite element analysis is currently a standard for solv - and 113° (route A) ing many engineering problems. It is also intensively used to understand the effects occurring during various SPD processes. Knowledge of deformation behaviour, as well as strain and stress distributions in a processed workpiece, 1 3 Archives of Civil and Mechanical Engineering (2023) 23:145 Page 9 of 10 145 is necessary to understand the effects the process param- peak shear strain and peak effective strain, but also larger eters (e.g. geometric features of dies and deformation path strain inhomogeneity along the strip thickness. sequence) exert on the microstructure evolution and the The smaller channel die angle, the higher strength and the resulting functional properties of a product. In the present lower ductility of the processed strip are obtained after work, the Simufact. Forming 15 FEA software has been used consecutive DRECE passes. to check and analyse the material deformation behaviour of the DC01 steel strip subjected to the DRECE process. Acknowledgements The financial support of the National Science Two die setups and two processing routes have been taken Centre, Poland, and the Ministry of Science and Higher Education, into consideration. Additionally, the results of static tensile Poland, is gratefully acknowledged. tests have been presented to show the effects of the die set- Funding This study was funded by the National Science Centre, Poland ups analysed in the paper on the mechanical properties of (Grant No. 2018/31/N/ST8/03134). strips subjected to the corresponding DRECE experiments. Issues and benefits of the DRECE process were analysed Data availability Data will be made available on reasonable request. and discussed. The numerical results confirmed that despite a simplified approach to the description of the process con- Declarations ditions, the FE method can provide specific information on Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of the DRECE process that cannot be achieved analytically and interest. is difficult to achieve experimentally. Moreover, FE results can be obtained at a reasonable cost and within a reason- Human and animal rights This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors. able time frame. Thus, it makes FE modelling a valuable tool for solving technical issues of the presented process in Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attri- engineering practice. bution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta- The following specific conclusions can be drawn from the tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long literature review and the results obtained: as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are In both analysed DRECE die setups the simple shear is included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated a dominant deformation mode over a little more than otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in half of the strip thickness. This deformation mode can the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not be beneficial for the formation of high angle boundaries permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a and grain refinement. copy of this licence, visit http://cr eativ ecommons. or g/licen ses/ b y/4.0/ . While the round die corners are necessary for the practi- cal reasons to extrude a workpiece through the die chan- nel and reduce forces required to conduct the DRECE process, these corners simultaneously create the low References shear deformation regions near the strip surfaces. The shear strain value obtained by DRECE process in the 1. Wang JT. Historic retrospection and present status of severe plastic internal, high shear deformation region of a strip can be deformation in China. 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Archives of Civil and Mechanical Engineering – Springer Journals
Published: May 14, 2023
Keywords: Severe plastic deformation; DRECE; ECAP; Angular channel extrusion; Processing route; Finite element analysis
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