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Dahab is a tourist city located in the Sinai Peninsula, downstream of the Dahab watershed, as a part of the arid coastal region. Groundwater samples have been collected from the Dahab delta and were tested for salinity, major ions, minor elements, and heavy metals to investigate the geochemical processes deteriorating the groundwater qual- ity. The spatial distribution of major, minor, and trace elements integrated with the geochemical interrelationships using the cumulative salinity bases mixing curves have been utilized to investigate the main source(s) of ground- water recharge and salinization origin in Dahab delta aquifer. The groundwater salinity ranges from 339 upstream of Dahab watershed to 53,216 mg/L downstream in the delta area. The groundwater varies from fresh, brackish, and saline water. The spatial distributions of major ions, minor elements (Si, and Br), and heavy metals (B and Sr) confirm that the recharge comes from the upstream watershed. According to the mixing model curves, groundwater quality has declined due to interactions with the aquifer matrix, mixing with seawater, and rejected brine from the reverse osmosis desalination plants. The fresh/brackish groundwater classes have been recorded in the northwestern part of the study area close to the basement rocks, where the Quaternary aquifer receives considerable recharge through the underneath fractures, joints, and faults that enhance the subsurface recharge. The samples with a high saline groundwater class have been recorded in the eastern and southern parts of the delta, demonstrating the effects of seawater intrusion. Based on WHO guideline criteria, the assessment of groundwater for various uses has determined that most groundwater samples from the alluvial aquifer (91%) are unfit for human consumption. The Water Quality Index indicates that the groundwater in the southern part of the delta is not suitable for all uses due to mixing with the seawater, and injection of rejected brine water from the desalination plants. In the north, groundwater is unfit for drinking and aquatics, excellent for recreation, marginal for irrigation, and fair for livestock. The groundwater in coastal arid region aquifers has deteriorated due to seawater intrusion. Keywords Dahab delta, Groundwater quality, Groundwater evaluation, Groundwater salinization, Seawater mixing, Water Quality Index ( WQI) *Correspondence: Mustafa Eissa Eissa.mustafa@tamucc.edu; mostafaa75@hotmail.com Full list of author information is available at the end of the article This is a U.S. Government work and not under copyright protection in the US; foreign copyright protection may apply 2023. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http:// creat iveco mmons. org/ licen ses/ by/4. 0/. Samy et al. Beni-Suef Univ J Basic Appl Sci (2023) 12:54 Page 2 of 21 quality of the Quaternary aquifer along the Gulf of Aqaba 1 Background has worsened [42]. In most arid region countries, groundwater is the pri- The groundwater quality downstream of the Dahab mary source of water [47]. Over the past few decades, aquifer has deteriorated due to seawater intrusion and groundwater quality in coastal aquifers in arid regions brine water injection deeper into the aquifer [21, 68]. worldwide, including Egypt, North Africa, and Oman has The upwelling of seawater in south Sinai considerably declined due to the expansion of the urban, agricultural, impacted the Quaternary aquifer’s salinity because there mining, and industrial sectors [53, 62, 80]. In coastal were no natural groundwater replenishments in such an aquifers, excessive withdrawals frequently account for arid region. A thin layer of brackish water suspended groundwater salinization [36]. Geogenic pollution, over deep, salty groundwater vulnerable to the stresses including water–rock interaction and seawater intrusion, of groundwater pumping compensates the groundwa- deteriorates the quality of groundwater resources [52]. ter [23]. Groundwater quality has also decreased due to In addition, human activities, including residential and the aquifer’s deeper penetration of rejected brine water agricultural activities, frequently result in a decline in caused by the widespread use of reverse osmosis desali- the quality and quantity of groundwater [32, 54]. Water nation. Therefore, assessing how geochemical processes quality monitoring is crucial to ensure the long-term control groundwater salinization is essential for sustain- sustainability of freshwater resources [18, 46]. Under- ably managing groundwater resources [13, 62, 65]. Con- standing water quality is essential for the efficient and taminated water can impact everyone, which eventually sustainable management of groundwater resources [14, poses a health risk. 62]. Numerous academics have assessed the suitability of Therefore, the main objectives of this research are water resources in arid regions for various uses, includ- to (1) identify the primary sources contributing to the ing domestic, agricultural, and industrial operations, groundwater quality decline based on the spatial distri- using various techniques and methods [28]. Drinking bution of major, minor, and trace constituents (2) Inves- water has attracted more scientific interest than other tigate the effects of seawater mixing and the rejection of applications [3, 4, 18, 46]. Identifying processes control- brine deeper into the Quaternary aquifer; and (3) Evalu- ling the water’s physical and chemical components, such ate the groundwater quality using the Water Quality as water–rock interaction and mixing with other water, is Index (WQI) model to assess changes and consider the part of groundwater geochemistry [8]. The World Health groundwater’s chemistry. Organization (WHO) provides information on various boreholes, well selection, implementation and specifies drinking water quality guidelines [59]. However, people in developing countries frequently ignore these regula- 2 The study area tions, which causes pathogenic, microbiological, and 2.1 Location chemical contamination of wells and boreholes [43, 70]. Delta Wadi Dahab is located on the west shore of the To alleviate water scarcity issues and meet agricultural Gulf of Aqaba between longitudes 34° 28′ and 34° 32′ sector demands, groundwater quality evaluations for E. and latitudes 28° 28 ′ and 29° 32′ N. (Fig. 1). It has an agrarian irrigation have been carried out in Egypt [49, area of 10.9 km . The average rainfall ranges from 10.3 69]. By the end of 2022, Egypt’s population will increase to 18.9 mm/year, with the majority falling in a handful by over 100 million, creating considerable difficulties in of days, particularly in the spring and autumn. Tempera- supplying safe drinking water to rural and small commu- tures in the summer vary from 31 to 37 °C, while tem- nities. Rural communities are hence practically obliged to peratures in the winter range from 2 to 13 °C [20]. The drink from existing groundwater sources [2, 5, 32]. average evaporation rate is between 3976 and 6252 mm/ The studied region is the delta Dahab watershed, year [1]. The aridity index is 1.3 based on the Emberger located in the South Sinai governorate, where more equation (1955) [26]. Groundwater is the sole drinking, than 178,000 people rely primarily on groundwater for domestic, and agricultural source in the study area since agriculture and drinking [76]. The South Sinai Penin - it can be easily extracted from the Quaternary aquifer. sula’s Delta Wadi Dahab comprises groundwater, seawa- The relative humidity is highest in the winter (45–56%) ter desalination, and local seasonal rainfall as primary and lowest in the summer (25–32%). Current coastal water sources. The Quaternary aquifer is the sole aquifer overdevelopment, notably in the Delta Wadi Dahab in the Delta Dahab, where limited precipitation results basin on the Gulf of Aqaba, needs increased demand for in limited yearly groundwater replenishment and, con- urban water supply. The tapped water potential is fre - sequently, groundwater salinization [59]. Additionally, quently insufficient to meet the excessive growth in water because the upwelling of seawater cannot support the demands required for municipal, agricultural, industrial, excessive groundwater withdrawals, the groundwater and tourism-related activities. S amy et al. Beni-Suef Univ J Basic Appl Sci (2023) 12:54 Page 3 of 21 Fig. 1 Groundwater, reject brine water and extract water samples collected from Delta Wadi Dahab Samy et al. Beni-Suef Univ J Basic Appl Sci (2023) 12:54 Page 4 of 21 2.2 G eological and hydrogeological setting Materials [6] at the Centre laboratories, Desert Research The Dahab basin is part of the old Archean Triangle of Centre (DRC) in July 2019. the Arbo-Nubian Shield. The study area’s sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous rock ages range from the 3.1 Determination of major ions Cambrian to the Quaternary [25, 38, 39, 83]. Most igne- The analysis includes the pH, electrical conductivity (EC), ous and metamorphic rocks are upstream and primar- total dissolved solids (TDS) measured during the field ily composed of fractured granitic rocks that have been trip. Orion 150A + EC meter of Thermo Electron Corpo - intruded by basic and intermediate dykes. ration, USA’s was used to measure the electrical conduc- Sedimentary rocks dominate the studied areas in the tivity. At 25 °C, the EC was expressed in mohs/cm, and upstream northern portions. Most of the rocks in the the salinity can be calculated from EC (μmohs/cm) from upstream part of the Dahab basin are from the Cambrian, this equation: Lower Cretaceous, and Upper Cretaceous periods [27, TDS mg/L = ke × EC (μmohs/cm) (1) 74]. Quartz and kaolinite minerals are extremely com- parable between the Lower Cretaceous clastic layer and (ke is a constant of proportionality). Cambrian rocks [45]. Wadi fills, alluvial deposits, and ter - 2+ 2+ Ca and Mg were determined by titration against races are common in the downstream delta. Rock frag- disodium Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (N a EDTA) ments the size of cobbles and boulders, gravel, sand, silt, 2+ using a murexide indicator. At the same time, Mg was and clays make up most of the wadi fill deposits [ 41, 66]. estimated by subtracting the calcium value from the total Alluvial deposits were considered significant aquifers 2+ 2+ hardness (Ca + Mg ) using E.B.T (Eriochrome Black due to their excellent hydraulic qualities [27]. The stream T) indicator [10, 40]. Na was determined by standard channel floors are covered with various alluvial depos - curves using Flame Photometer, PF P7, Jenway, UK. The its of varying thicknesses and textures (Fig. 2) from one detailed chemical analysis of such groundwater samples meter upstream to more than 50 m in the Dahab down- is shown in Table 1. stream delta of the basin [9]. The hydrogeological setting of the Dahab Basin was 3.2 Determination of heavy metals affected by many factors, including geological, structural, The Inductively Coupled Argon Plasma, ICAP 6500 Duo, and climatic conditions. The wadi fill deposits distributed from Thermo Scientific, England, was used to measure in the downstream or upstream parts of Dahab basin the dissolved heavy metals (Al, Ba, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, contain groundwater [29, 56, 71–73]. Surface drainage Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, and Zn) in the water samples that were allowed a significant volume of precipitation to be dis - collected. A stock solution for instrument standardiza- charged into the Gulf of Aqaba. The recent rainfall is the tion, 1000 mg/L multi-element certified standard solu - main source of groundwater recharge in the basement tion, Merck, Germany, was used. rocks. Recent rainfall percolation through alluvial stream deposits replenishes the groundwater [19]. 3.3 Evaluation of groundwater Generally, water used for drinking purposes should be colorless, free of turbidity, excessive amounts of dis- 3 Methods solved salts, harmful micro-organisms, and unpleas- In July 2019, thirty-nine groundwater samples were taken ant odor or taste. To evaluate groundwater for human from the alluvial aquifer. Additionally, one sample of drinking, the groundwater salinity and concentration of rainfall, one sample of seawater, four representatives were major ions and heavy metals have been considered on collected from desalination planets (brine water), and recommended standards [81]. Water used for house- ten samples represented the water–rock extract (Tables 1 hold purposes on farms, including that eaten by ani- and 2). The samples were collected in two bottles: one for mals and poultry, is subject to quality restrictions and major ions determination and the other for heavy metals international standards set by the National Academies measurements. The first was preserved in the refrigera - of Science (NAS) and Engineering (NAE) [55]. High tor, and the second was preserved by added conc. Nitric salinity and toxicity components are two of the most acid. The groundwater samples represent the delta aqui - common water quality issues in irrigation. When salts fer, extending from inland close to the basement moun- accumulate in soils, the salinization deteriorates its tain to the coast. The exposed rock units and subsurface quality. Water contains some elements that can slow geological cross sections were used to determine the tap- down or stop plant growth, including but not limited to ping aquifers and water-carrying formations. The analy - salinity, chlorine, and sodium. For a better understand- ses were carried out using the procedures that had been ing of whether water is suitable for agricultural use, key established [31, 63], American Society for Testing and factors such as the electrical conductivity (Ec), Na% S amy et al. Beni-Suef Univ J Basic Appl Sci (2023) 12:54 Page 5 of 21 Fig. 2 Geological Map for the Wadi Dahab Watershed, Southern Sinai, Egypt Samy et al. Beni-Suef Univ J Basic Appl Sci (2023) 12:54 Page 6 of 21 Table 1 Chemical analyses of salinity, major ions, and minor elements (mg/L) of the Quaternary aquifer at Dahab Area Variables Mean Median Min Q1 Q3 Max Upstream watershed groundwater (8 samples: 1, 31–37 and 44) pH 7.4 7.40 7.10 7.30 7.58 7.80 EC µmhos/cm 1764 1314 641 654 1873 5790 Salinity ( TDS) (mg/l) 1065 684 339 362 1138 3842 2+ Ca 112 87 47 50 114 47 2+ Mg 39 21 5 11 48 152 Na 178 113 52 61 181 660 K 6 7 3 3 8 10 Alkalinity 100 107 49 69 122 140 2− SO 464 253 101 116 549 1809 Cl 217 150 58 62 208 833 Si 10.1 9.52 7.69 8.69 10.58 15.59 Sr 2.2 1.18 0.58 0.81 1.68 9.57 B 0.6 0.58 0.16 0.42 0.69 1.27 Br 56.9 32 8.80 21 68 150 Downstream delta groundwater (31 samples) pH 7.8 7.70 7.00 7.50 8.00 8.60 EC µmhos/cm 17,287 7290 1793 5820 9190 78,100 Salinity ( TDS) (mg/l) 10,757 3846 895 3221 4793 53,216 2+ Ca 420 416 67 297 520 874 2+ Mg 264 63 5 38 81 1453 Na 3156 840 250 680 1300 17,600 K 107 21 9 14 45 600 Alkalinity 100 85 49 67 128 201 2− SO 1689 645 179 515 1040 7266 Cl 5062 1812 333 1333 2207 25,906 Si 17.3 7.34 7.77 13.45 21.04 34.82 Sr 7.5 7.46 0.89 5.08 9.54 16.79 B 2.8 1.98 1.09 1.43 3.19 9.14 Br 46.8 31 8.80 21 48 144 Reverse osmosis reject brine water (4 samples: R1 to R4) pH 8.2 8.00 7.50 7.65 8.90 9.40 EC µmhos/cm 57,068 67,000 742 30,271 78,900 82,800 Salinity ( TDS) (mg/l) 38,524 44,253 341 20,178 54,006 58,442 2+ Ca 567 562 8 264 874 8 2+ Mg 1289 1681 0 632 1750 1820 Na 11,863 12,800 116 6358 16,900 18,400 K 441 600 6 203 600 600 Alkalinity 74 76 0 31 120 140 2− SO 3479 1356 20 47 6428 9486 Cl 10,298.7 439.80 46.30 174.93 24,823.40 27,489.00 Si 9.7 7.34 3.17 3.25 15.53 24.33 Sr 5.5 1.56 0.03 0.12 12.29 13.14 B 6.3 7.75 1.40 2.97 8.21 8.34 Br 80.7 13 1.67 5 156 240 Water extract (10 samples: Ex1–Ex10) pH 8.3 8.25 7.30 7.98 8.75 9.10 EC µmhos/cm 1190 673 311 359 2027 3750 Salinity ( TDS) 816 412 187 219 1456 2676 S amy et al. Beni-Suef Univ J Basic Appl Sci (2023) 12:54 Page 7 of 21 Table 1 (continued) Variables Mean Median Min Q1 Q3 Max 2+ Ca 134 24 11 13 34 11 2+ Mg 11 6 3 3 16 45 Na 95 65 16 33 106 400 K 25 18 8 13 40 52 Alkalinity 51 49 31 31 56 104 2− SO 404 177 47 66 822 1356 Cl 122 86 37 44 139 440 Si 3.6 3.51 1.52 2.75 4.72 5.95 Sr 0.6 0.38 0.10 0.17 1.25 1.56 B < 0.0004 < 0.0004 < 0.0004 < 0.0004 < 0.0004 < 0.0004 Br 4.9 3.75 1.33 1.79 8.63 9.50 Q1, the lower quartile, or first quartile is the value under which 25% of data points are found when they are arranged in increasing order; Q3, the upper quartile, or third quartile is the value under which 75% of data points are found when arranged in increasing order Table 2 Chemical analyses of sea and rainwater samples, mg/L Sample pH EC TDS Ca Mg Na K CO HCO SO Cl Br Si Sr B 3 3 4 µs/cm mg/l Rain 7.0 45.5 29.15 7.1 0.6 2.3 ND ND 14.5 6.4 5.5 5.2 ND 3.036 0.0066 Sea 7.6 66,101 42,304 391 1661 12,690 460.0 ND 149.7 3500 23,528 80 4 8.239 3.00 [82], sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) [77], permeability 3.4 Water Quality Index index (PI) [16], potential salinity (SP), Kelly ratio (KR) The code for the Water Quality Index (WQI) version 1.0 [44], and magnesium ratio Paliwal [61] have been con- [15] has been used to rank categories for different water sidered [34] to understand better whether water is suit- uses, including human drinking, irrigation, poultry, and able for agricultural use. The following equations have recreation. The program contains over 50 predefined been used for groundwater evaluaton. parameters to check groundwater availability for drink- ing and other uses. The criteria for evaluating water qual - (Na + K) x 100 ity are based on the Canadian Environmental Guidelines Na% = (2) considering the pH, major constituents, dissolved minor Ca + Mg + Na + K and trace elements, and physical parameters, including temperature, turbidity, and color. The model output is a Na statistical summary of the data used and the rank of the SAR(meq/l) = (3) overall water quality. Ca + Mg /2 Na + HCO 34 Results Permeability Index (PI) = × 100 Ca + Mg + Na4.1 Groundwater geochemistry The groundwater is considered the main source of (4) water supply in the middle east as a part of arid and PS = Cl + 0.5(SO ) 4 (5) semi-arid regions where the rainfall is scarce [35]. The physical parameters characterizing the groundwater in KR = Na/ Ca + Mg (6) Wadi Dahab delta show great variations. The pH in the upstream groundwater ranges from 7.1 to 7.8 with a mean value of 7.4, while the downstream groundwater Magnesium ratio = Mg × 100/ Ca + Mg (7) in the delta ranges from 7.0 to 8.6 with a mean value of 7.8, indicating alkaline media. The electrical con The concentrations of anions and cations in Eqs. 3–7 ductivity of upstream groundwater ranges from 641 are represented in meq/L. Samy et al. Beni-Suef Univ J Basic Appl Sci (2023) 12:54 Page 8 of 21 4.2 Dissolved minor elements in groundwater to 5790 µmhos/cm with a mean value of 1764 µmhos/ The concentration of minor elements (Si, Sr, B, and cm, while the downstream delta groundwater ranges Br) dissolved in groundwater is displayed in Table 1. from 1793 to 78,100 µmhos/cm, with a mean value of The silica concentration in the upstream groundwa - 17,287 µmhos/cm, indicating elevated groundwater ter samples ranges between 7.69 and 15.59 mg/L, with salinization due to mixing with the seawater. Salin- a mean value of 10.1 mg/L. In the downstream delta, ity is the term used to describe the dissolved concen- silica ranges between 7.77 and 34.82 mg/L, with a mean trations of major ions in water. The concentration of value of 17.3 mg/L. The strontium concentrations in the the groundwater constituents varies according to how upstream watershed range from 0.58 to 9.57 mg/L with mineral-rich the aquifer matrix through which the a mean value of 2.2 mg/L. In the downstream delta, the groundwater flows. The average salinity of the ground- Sr ranges between 0.8 and 16.8 mg/L with a mean value water located upstream ranges from 339 to 3842 mg/L of 7.5 mg/L. The boron concentration in the upstream while the groundwater in the delta alluvial aquifer ranges between 0.16 and 1.27 mg/L with a mean value of downstream ranges from 895 to 53,216 mg/L (Table 1). 0.6 mg/L, in the downstream delta, it ranges from 1.1 to The Na ion predominates, explaining the significance 9.1 mg/L with a mean value of 2.8 mg/L. The bromide in of saltwater through and the seawater intrusion [60]. the delta ranges between 8.8 and 144 mg/L with a mean The dissolved Na ion concentration in the upstream value of 46.8 mg/L. The rejected brine water samples pos - watershed ranges between 52 and 660 mg/L with a sess very high concentrations of minor elements, espe- mean average of 2545 mg/L, while in the delta ground- cially bromide ions, while the water extract samples have water it ranges between 250 and 17,600 mg/L with a − 2+ lower concentrations of minor elements (Table 1). mean value of 3156 mg/L. HCO and Ca predomi- nance reveals the impact of rock water interaction with 4.3 Dissolved trace and heavy elements limestone boulders embedded in the aquifer matrix The main source of dissolved elements in groundwa - [37]. Calcium concentration ranges between 66.5 mg/L ter in rural desert areas mainly comes from the geo- and 874 mg/L with a median value of 420 mg/L. The genic source due to leaching, dissolution processes, and chloride ion concentration in the upstream watershed interaction with the aquifer matrix [51]. The concentra - ranges between 58 and 833 mg/L with a mean value tion of heavy and trace elements records high variation of 217 mg/L, while downstream in the delta ranges in the groundwater samples. The dissolved aluminum, between 333 and 25,906 mg/L, with a mean value of iron, manganese, and zinc concentration in groundwater 5062 mg/L (Table 1). Based on the values of groundwa- record higher variations, while the Cobalt, chromium, ter salinity, water can be classified as fresh, brackish, and copper show lower variations (Fig. 3). The aluminum and saline water classes [11]. The bulk of groundwater concentration in groundwater ranges between 0.02 and samples located in the delta area are classified as saline 0.75 mg/L, with a median value of 0.1 mg/L and an aver- (68%) and brackish (22%) water classes, with a minor- age value of 0.16 mg/L. The concentration of dissolved ity classified as freshwater (10%). iron ranges between 0.034 and 4.6 mg/L, with a median value of 0.24 mg/L and an average value of 0.51 mg/L. Fig. 3 Box-Whisker plot of heavy metals concentrations for groundwater samples in the Alluvium aquifer related to the Permissible limit S amy et al. Beni-Suef Univ J Basic Appl Sci (2023) 12:54 Page 9 of 21 The manganese concentration ranges between 0.003 with a mean value of 3156 mg/L. The northwestern and 0.09 mg/L, with a median value of 0.015 mg/L and region, near the mountain’s granitic rock, has a lower an average value of 0.0 mg/L. The concentration of zinc sodium concentration, indicating a geogenic source of ranges between 0.001 and 1.19 mg/L, with a median sodium (Fig. 4d). Due to weathering, mineral dissolu- value of 0.026 and an average value of 0.089 mg/L. tion, and atmospheric CO gas dissolution, bicarbo- nates and carbonates are typically present in natural groundwater [63]. Groundwater’s bicarbonate concen- 5 Discussion trations range from 49 to 201 mg/L, with a typical value 5.1 O rigin of groundwater salinization of 100 mg/L (Fig. 4e). The main contributors to sulfate The fresh groundwater class has been recorded in the in natural water are gypsum and anhydrite, which are northern part of the study area close to the basement contained in the aquifer matrix of the Quaternary aqui- rocks, where the Quaternary aquifer receives consider- fer [40]. The decomposition of organic materials in the able recharge through the underneath fractures, joints, soil and leachable sulfates in fertilizers lead to further and faults that enable surface and groundwater perco- sulfate addition to groundwater [58]. lation and enhance the subsurface recharge [59]. The The sulfate content in the alluvial aquifer ranges from samples with a high saline groundwater class have been 179 to 7266 mg/L, with a mean value of 1689 mg/L recorded in the eastern and southern parts of the delta, (Fig. 4f ). The aquifer’s comparatively low sulfate con - demonstrating the effects of seawater incursion. The tents (less than 2000 mg/L) result from water–rock seawater intrusion is mainly due to withdrawals and the interaction mechanisms that cause leaching and dis- impact of injecting hypersaline water from desalina- solution. However, mixing with saltwater is primarily tion plants [24]. Figure 4 shows the spatial distribution responsible for the greater sulfate amounts observed. of groundwater salinity, major cations and anions using Chloride in the groundwater is mostly produced by the kriging interpolation method. In Fig. 4a, the groundwa- dissolution of evaporite and halite found in the delta ter salinity increases from northwest to southeast, which deposits [22]. Chloride levels in groundwater sam- coincides with the groundwater flow path due to leach - ples taken from the alluvial aquifer range from 333 to ing and dissolution with the flow direction that reported 25,906 mg/L, with a mean value of 5062 mg/L (Fig. 4g). by Shabana [68]. Groundwater salinity is made up of 2+ 2+ + The concentrations of major cations (Ca, Mg, Na ) dissolved major ions. In all collected groundwater sam- − 2− − 2+ 2+ + − 2− − and major anions (HCO, SO , and Cl ) decrease at 3 4 ples, the Ca, Mg, Na, HCO, SO , and Cl ions 3 4 the northeast while increasing at the southeast of the typically make up most of the dissolved solid’s load. The delta area (Fig. 4b–g). The lower ions concentrations primary components of carbonate rocks (limestone and recorded at the northwestern side indicate subsurface dolomite) in the aquifer matrix are calcium and magne- recharge from the fractured granitic rocks located sium, readily dissolved in water as alkaline earth met- upstream of Dahab watershed. als. They are mostly accused of water hardness and are The Durov diagram [17] (Fig. 5) was employed to typically present in natural water in dissociated form as understand the groundwater system’s hydrochemical pro- bivalent ions. In the delta Dahab area, the calcium con- cess. The groundwater samples of various hydrochemi - centration ranges from 67 to 874 mg/L with a mean value cal types illustrated most of the groundwater samples of 420 mg/L, while magnesium concentration ranges located in box 8, showing that the samples are (Cl-Mg) from 5 to 1453 mg/L with a mean value of 264 mg/L related to reverse ion exchange. Still, the rest of the sam- (Fig. 4b, c). The illustration depicts the interaction of ple located in box 9 shows that the groundwater samples water and rock in an aquifer with a carbonate-rich sub- (Cl-Na) indicate mixing of fresh and saline waters, possi- strate and seawater mixing [7, 57, 79]. bly influencing reverse ion exchange or halite dissolution. The alkali-metal group of the periodic table is domi - Otherwise, some samples are forced to boxes 4 and 5, nated by sodium. The primary source of sodium in the meaning that S O and Ca water types indicate a gypsum- fresh groundwater class is the leaching of sedimen- bearing sedimentary aquifer. This confirms the interac - tary rocks like clay minerals. Due to the great solubil- tion of water with the rock. In Fig. 6, the Sulin diagram ity of sodium salts and their weakly-bonding nature to [75] shows that most of the upstream groundwater (31, clay minerals and other adsorbents, the sea becomes 32, 34–47, and 44) have a Na SO water indicating mete- 2 4 enriched, and deposits eventually evaporate [50]. Natu- oric water origin, while most of groundwater samples ral freshwater typically has a sodium concentration of in the delta area have a C aCl water type indicating old less than 200 mg/L, whereas seawater and brines have marine water due to the impact of the upwelling of deep sodium concentrations of roughly 10,000 mg/L and saline water because of over pumping. The groundwater 25,000 mg/L, respectively [40]. The sodium levels in samples Nos. 1, 4, 19, 25, 27, 29, 40, and 42 have a MgCl the investigated aquifer range from 250 to 17,600 mg/L, Samy et al. Beni-Suef Univ J Basic Appl Sci (2023) 12:54 Page 10 of 21 Fig. 4 Spatial distributions of groundwater salinity ( TDS) and major ion concentrations in the study area, where a Total Dissolved Solids ( TDS), b Calcium, c Magnesium, d Sodium, e Bicarbonate, f Sulfate and g Chloride S amy et al. Beni-Suef Univ J Basic Appl Sci (2023) 12:54 Page 11 of 21 Fig. 5 Durov plot for groundwater in alluvial aquifer indicating the hydrochemical processes involved [48] Fig. 6 Sulin diagram for groundwater samples in Dahab watershed, South Sinai, Egypt Samy et al. Beni-Suef Univ J Basic Appl Sci (2023) 12:54 Page 12 of 21 water type as well as most of the reverse osmosis brine bromide ions, while the water extract samples have lower water samples indicating recent marine water. concentrations of minor elements (Tables 1, 2). Figure 8 shows the relationship between the groundwa- 5.2 I mplication of seawater intrusion using minor ter salinity and the Si, Sr, B, and Br (in mg/L). To illustrate elements the mixing breakthrough curves, the equation derived The result in Fig. 7 reveals that the higher silica concen- by Faure [30] has been used to demonstrate the extent of tration appears in the main channel region due to the the average concentration of these minor elements in the weathering of granitic basement rocks. However, the rejecting brine water, water–rock extract, and seawater lower concentrations recorded are close to seawater due samples. In Fig. 8a–d, the groundwater samples plotted to seawater mixing as silica records lower concentra- on the lower left sides close to the extract samples and tion in the sea. In groundwater, the higher concentration samples collected from the upstream watershed indi- of Sr, B, and Br in the South-East of the study area are cate meteoric recharge comes from upstream and the associated with the rejected brine water, and seawater water–rock interaction is the dominating process affect - intrusion as these elements are used as a fingerprint of ing the groundwater quality. However, groundwater sam- marine deposits. The reject brine water samples possess ples plotted on the upper right displayed mixed with the very high concentrations of minor elements, especially rejected brine and seawater. Fig. 7 Distribution of minor elements in groundwater (mg/L) for a Silica, b Strontium, c Boron, and d Bromide S amy et al. Beni-Suef Univ J Basic Appl Sci (2023) 12:54 Page 13 of 21 Fig. 8 Mixing model cumulative curves for a Silica (Si), b Strontium (Sr), c Boron (B), and d Bromide (Br) 5.3 E valuation of groundwater quality for human drinking of manganese, 36% of nickel, and 62% of lead concentra- To evaluate the groundwater suitability for human drink- tions exceed the acceptable limit, according to the WHO ing, the World Health Organization [81] guideline has [81]. been used which indicates the permissible limits for salinity, major, minor and trace elements. The ground - 5.4 Evaluation of groundwater quality for livestock water in the study area has high salinity, only six sam- and domestic ples are suitable for drinking, where the recorded salinity The chemical analysis data reported in (Table 1) are com- is less than 1000 mg/L. One sample is located down- pared to the standards’ limits (Table 4 and Fig. 9a) to stream in the delta (No. 20) and eight samples are in the determine the acceptability of groundwater for livestock upstream watershed (31–37, inclusive and 44). The dis - and poultry. It is obvious that 3% of total groundwater solved major ions including Ca, Mg and Na record higher samples in the alluvial have an excellent class (No. 20), concentrations, where most of the groundwater samples 19% are regarded as very satisfactory (Nos. 15, 19, 22, 26, are exceeding the permissible limits recommended for 28, and 30), 55% are satisfactory (Nos. 6, 7, 8, 9, 14, 16, drinking (Table 3). Because heavy metals cannot biode- 17, 18, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 38, 39, 40 and 41), and 23% are grade, they tend to accumulate in living organisms. In deemed water with a risk class for livestock and poultry significant doses, heavy metals are known to be toxic or (1, 3, 4, 11, 12 and 42) in the alluvial groundwater tests. carcinogenic. The heavy metals Al, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Water for laundry and domestic applications should Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, and Zn are particularly important in be soft or hard. In the alluvial aquifer, total groundwa- groundwater. The dissolved amounts of chromium, cop - ter hardness ranges from 20.8 to 7602.8 mg/L, with an per, and zinc in groundwater samples drawn from the average value of 1745.7 mg/L (Table 5). According to alluvial aquifer in this research are lower than the World the permitted limit of hardness indicated by Sawyer Health Organization’s allowed levels. In the alluvial aqui- and Mc Carty [67], 87% of the collected groundwater fer, 10% of aluminum, 38% of cadmium, 23% of iron, 8% samples have a hardness level above 300 mg/L. So, they Samy et al. Beni-Suef Univ J Basic Appl Sci (2023) 12:54 Page 14 of 21 Table 3 Water quality guidelines for human drinking Parameter WHO Groundwater Samples not exceeding the Guide lines Groundwater samples exceeding the GUIDE lines guidelines (ppm) Salinity ( TDS) 1000 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 20 36, 37, 15, 27, 28, 22, 19, 25, 30, 14, 38, 24, 41, 18, 29, 9, 44, 17, 16, 6, 39, 40. 7, 8, 26, 10, 23, 1, 42, 3, 12, 4, 11, 13 Magnesium 50 20, 34, 31, 32, 6, 15, 33, 35, 7, 27, 22, 8, 41, 14, 36, 28, 19, 25 37, 40, 18, 17, 10, 29, 24, 9, 39, 38, 26, 16, 30, 44, 23, 3, 12, 1, 11, 42, 4, 13 Calcium 75 32, 34, 31, 20, 35 33, 15, 37, 36, 27, 22, 25, 28, 19, 30, 29, 6, 44, 24, 9, 39, 8, 3, 10, 40, 41, 38, 26, 18, 7, 12, 1, 4, 14, 16, 11, 17, 42, 13, 23 Sodium 200 31, 32, 34, 35, 33, 36, 37 20, 15, 27, 28, 22, 14, 44, 30, 38, 17, 19, 24, 41, 18, 16, 25, 29, 40, 9, 39, 7, 6, 8, 26, 10, 23, 1, 42, 12, 3, 4, 11, 13 Aluminum 0.2 3, 41, 28, 38, 22, 27, 40, 35, 39, 20, 26, 36, 14, 11, 30, 19, 16, 23, 18, 34, 33 44, 15, 25, 31, 32, 37, 17, 24, 29, 9, 7, 6, 8, 10, 1, 42, 12, 4, 13 Cadmium 0.003 10, 18, 3, 41, 28, 27, 40, 35, 20, 36, 14, 30, 16, 44, 15, 25, 23, 12, 19, 1, 26, 6, 37, 11, 8, 29, 32, 22, 39, 17, 38, 4 34, 33, 31, 24, 9, 7, 42, 13 Cobalt – – – Chromium 0.05 All samples – Copper 0.05 All samples – Iron 0.3 42, 13, 31, 38, 20, 28, 29, 6, 40, 35, 7, 11, 32, 30, 19, 1, 37, 10, 39, 23, 18, 25, 16, 36, 44, 34, 15, 33, 14 12, 12, 26, 8, 22, 17, 4, 3, 41, 27, 24, 9 Manganese 0.05 20, 7, 1, 41, 22, 17, 32, 38, 31, 8, 19, 40, 39, 10, 35, 37, 18, 4, 27, 44, 33, 3, 13, 12, 15, 14 30, 16, 11, 36, 25, 34, 23, 9, 28, 6, 29, 42, 24, 26 Molybdenum – – – Nickel 0.02 3, 13, 39, 44, 31, 41, 16, 18, 19, 40, 25, 20, 7, 1, 35, 37, 9, 33, 23, 36, 42, 17, 8, 10, 22, 11, 14, 15, 38, 27, 32, 30, 34, 29, 26, 4 12, 28, 6, 24 Lead 0.01 23, 17, 22, 32, 26, 4, 39, 41, 16, 19, 40, 20, 1, 33, 12 38, 14, 35, 37, 28, 25, 15, 30, 6, 3, 13, 36, 29, 9, 42, 27, 11, 7, 10, 18, 44, 24, 34, 31, 8 Zinc 3.0 All samples – Table 4 Guide to the use of saline waters for livestock and poultry (National Academy of science (NAS) and National Academy of Engineering (NAE) [55]) Salinity (TDS), mg/l Classification Characters Less than 1000 Excellent Excellent for all classes of livestock and poultry Sample Nos. (20, 31, 32, 33, 34 and 35) 1000 to 3000 Very satisfactory Very satisfactory for all classes of livestock and poultry. May cause temporary and mild diarrhea in livestock not accustomed to them or watery dropping in poultry Sample Nos. (15, 19, 22, 27, 28, 36 and 37) 3000 to 5000 Satisfactory Satisfactory for livestock but may cause temporary diarrhea or be refused at first by animals not accustomed to them. Poor water for poultry often causes water faces, increased mortality, and decreased growth, espe- cially in turkeys Sample Nos. (6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 14, 16, 17, 18, 24, 25, 26, 29, 30, 38, 39, 40, 41 and 44) More than 5000 mg/l Not acceptable Unfit for poultry and probably for swine. Considerable risk in using for pregnant or lactating cow, horses or sheep, or for the young of these species Sample Nos. (1, 3, 4, 11, 12, 23 and 42) are unfit for residential and laundry usage (Fig. 9b). 5.5 Evaluation of groundwater for irrigation No. 20 is the only groundwater sample collected from 5.5.1 S odium percentage (Na%) the study area evaluated as hard water; while the other The salt content in irrigation water is generally groundwater samples consist of very hard water and expressed as a percentage (%). According to [82], not suitable for domestic and laundry uses. the Na% is a standard criterion used to determine S amy et al. Beni-Suef Univ J Basic Appl Sci (2023) 12:54 Page 15 of 21 Fig. 9 Evaluation of groundwater in delta Dahab watershed for different purposes a Suitability of groundwater for livestock and poultry. b Suitability of groundwater for domestic and laundry uses based on hardness values. c Evaluation of groundwater based on salinity for irrigation. d Evaluation of groundwater based on sodium percent (Na%) for irrigation Samy et al. Beni-Suef Univ J Basic Appl Sci (2023) 12:54 Page 16 of 21 Table 5 Suitability of water for laundry usage according to its unsuitable category (No. 15), and 10% fall into unsuit- total hardness [67] able category (22, 27 and 28). Classification Total hardness (mg/l as CaCO ) 5.5.2 S odium adsorption ratio (SAR) The SAR is a measurement of the suitability of water Soft < 75 for use in agricultural irrigation purposes. High sodium Moderately hard 75–150 ions concentration decreases the permeability of the Hard 150–300 soil and soil structure [77]. When the SAR value is high, Very hard > 300 2+ 2+ salt in irrigation water may replace C a and Mg ions in the soil, potentially inflicting significant harm. To evaluate waters for irrigation, a monogram is frequently Table 6 Classification of groundwater based on Na% (Wilcox utilized. The specific conductivity (mhos/cm), a func - [82]) tion of the groundwater salinity against SAR, is plotted Water quality Sodium (%) in this monogram. The water is divided into sixteen dif - ferent quality classes (C1-S1, C1-S2, C1-S3, etc.) based Excellent < 20 on four salinity classes (C1 to C4) and four SAR classes Good 20–40 (S1 to S4) (Table 7, Fig. 11). Permissible 40–60 84 percent of the groundwater samples from the allu- Doubtful 60–80 vial aquifer are not represented on the graph because Unsuitable > 80 their Electrical conductivity (EC) values, calculated using US standards, are greater than 5000 mhos/cm. The classification of groundwater includes a salinity hazard graph. The groundwater samples plotted out - side of the diagram are deemed unfit for irrigation, and 9% of samples in the alluvial aquifer are categorized as intermediate water class (C4-S2), 7% as moderate water class (C3-S2) and (C4-S1) (Fig. 12). 5.5.3 P ermeability index (PI) Since its creation in 1964 [16], the permeability index (PI) has been primarily used to assess a water’s suit- ability for irrigation. Three categories for PI were established,Class I and II waters are regarded as appro- priate for irrigation; however, class III waters are not. The classification system based on the PI has been used to determine the suitability of groundwater for irrigation. The alluvial aquifer’s documented PI values Fig. 10 Groundwater classification for irrigation concerning EC and range from 51.76 to 101.40, with an average of roughly sodium percent (Na%) 73.4. According to the values for the permeability index, 69% of groundwater samples from the alluvial aquifer are out of curve because their Electrical conductivity (EC) is greater than 5000 mhos/cm, 3% are classified as the appropriateness of natural waters for irrigation. class 2, and 13% are classified as class 1 (Fig. 12). Sodium percent in groundwater samples determines its suitability to irrigation purposes (Table 6). Based on the Na% of the collected groundwater sample it is clear that 5.5.4 P otential salinity (PS) 84% of groundwater samples in the alluvial aquifer are The increase of potential salinity (PS) is a function of outside the diagram because their electrical conductiv- the dissolved chloride and sulfate (meq/L) in irriga- ity (EC) exceeds 5000 μmohs/cm and are unsuitable for tion water. The higher SP value increases the osmosis irrigation (Figs. 9c, d and 10). While 3% fall into per- soil pressure, greatly affects the plant roots soil water missible to doubtful (No.20), 3% go into the doubtful to S amy et al. Beni-Suef Univ J Basic Appl Sci (2023) 12:54 Page 17 of 21 Table 7 Classification and interpretation of the water quality for irrigation according to the U.S. Salinity Laboratory Staff [100] Conductivity (EC) Degree Range (ppm) Usage (A) Based on salinity concentrations C1 Low salinity 100–250 Used for irrigation with most crops on most soil C2 Medium salinity 250–750 Used if moderate leaching occurs C3 High salinity 750–2250 It cannot be used with restricted drainage C4 Very high salinity 2250–5000 Not suitable for irrigation under ordinary condition Sodium percent Degree Range (ppm) Usage (B) Based on Sodium concentrations S1 Low Sodium 0–10 Can be used for all soils S2 Medium Sodium 10–18 Preferably used with good permeability S3 High Sodium 18–26 Good soil management essential S4 Very high Sodium 26–100 Unsuitable for irrigation except at low salinity Fig. 12 Groundwater classification for irrigation based on PI Fig. 11 US. Lab. of irrigation water for the groundwater in Delta Wadi Dahab Table 8 Classification of groundwater based on SP values Aquifer Salinity potential Classes % of Samples uptake, and damages the root system [12, 16, 64, 78]. The estimated SP values for the groundwater tap - Quaternary < 5 Good to excellent 0 ping the Quaternary aquifer range between 11.2 and 5 < SP < 10 Medium 0 805 meq/L, with a mean value of 148.9 meq/L and a > 10 Poor 100 median of 56.6 meq/L. Based on 42 classifications, all Samy et al. Beni-Suef Univ J Basic Appl Sci (2023) 12:54 Page 18 of 21 Table 9 Classification of groundwater based on KR values more alkaline. Magnesium hazard values for the alluvial aquifer range from 5.57 to 82.19%. 16% of groundwater Aquifer KR Water quality % of Samples samples in the alluvial aquifer are appropriate for irriga- Quaternary KR < 1 Good for irrigation 9.6 tion, according to the computed MH values in Table 1, KR > 1 Not suitable 90.4 whereas 84% are unsuitable and could reduce agricultural productivity. the Quaternary groundwater samples consist of poor 5.6 Water Quality Index for all uses using Water Quality water class (Table 8). Index (WQI) Water Quality Index integrated with statistics have been 5.5.5 The Kelly ratio (KR) used to evaluate groundwater aquifers in arid regions for The Kelly’s ratio [44] indicates the effect of an overabun - drinking and irrigation [7, 33, 34]. For various purposes, dance of dissolved sodium ions in irrigation water. With the groundwater quality in Delta Wadi Dahab has been a mean value of 2.2 meq/L and a median of 1.6 meq/L, rated using the Water Quality Index (WQI) program ver- the predicted KR ratio ranges from 0.8 to 8.9 meq/L. 9.6% sion 1.0. Three groups of groundwater in the study area of the samples are appropriate for irrigation, according have been identified (Figs. 13, 14). Group I for coastal to the estimated KR values for the Quaternary ground- saltwater is situated near desalination plants and is water, whereas the remaining samples (90.4) are deemed mostly impacted by the infusion of reject water. Group unsuitable (Table 9). II describes the brackish groundwater samples located at the main channel of the flooding path and the upstream 5.5.6 Magnesium ratio groundwater samples. Group III defined groundwater Since calcium and magnesium are often in equilibrium in samples near granitic rocks at the uphill mountainous water, the magnesium hazard index (MH) was created by terrain in the northern regions of the study area. The Paliwal [61]. The crop production suffers due to the high model’s output demonstrates that the groundwater in magnesium hazard value (> 50%) when the soil becomes Group I is marginal and unfit for cattle irrigation, human Fig. 13 Suitability of groundwater for different uses based on WQI values a Group [I], b Group [II], and c Group [III] S amy et al. Beni-Suef Univ J Basic Appl Sci (2023) 12:54 Page 19 of 21 38% of Cadmium, 23% of iron, 8% of manganese, 36% of nickel, and 62% of lead concentrations in the alluvial aqui- fer exceed the permissible limit. Chromium, copper, and 28.52 zinc concentrations in all groundwater samples tapped in the alluvial aquifer are below the allowable limit. To evalu- ate the suitability of groundwater for livestock and poultry, 15% of the alluvial aquifer groundwater samples have an 28.5 excellent class, 18% are considered very satisfactory, 49% are satisfactory, and 18% are considered as water having a risk class for livestock and poultry. Based on SAR, Na %, 28.48 MH, and PI, 82% of total samples are unsuitable for irriga- tion. The reverse osmosis brackish groundwater desalina - tion is crucial for providing sustainable freshwater and cost-effective for human drinking and other purposes. 28.47 34.48 34.49 34.5134.52 Acknowledgements Groundwater Salinity Range (mg/l) No acknowledgments are included in the article. ( TDS < 1000) (5000 < TDS < 10,000) Author contributions (1000 < TDS < 5000) (10,000 < TDS ) AS: Developed the theoretical formalism, performed the geospatial analysis, Fig. 14 Classifications of groundwater groups based on WQI values and conceived and planned the geochemical field measurements and data interpretation for the geochemical groundwater characteristics. In addition, he wrote part of the result and discussion in the manuscript. ME: Carried out the geochemical analyses for groundwater samples and wrote part of the geochemical methodology and results of the manuscript as took the drinking, aquatic activities, or enjoyment. Although good lead in writing the whole manuscript with input from all authors. SS: Carried out measurements for geochemical analyses, contributed to interpreting its for recreation, Group II groundwater samples are mar- results and wrote part of the methodology of the manuscript. MMS: Gives ginal for irrigation and cattle. They are not acceptable all the facilities of the water analyses laboratory for the Ph.D. student Amira for drinking or aquatic use. Group III groundwater is Samy and provided all the chemical and field work instruments, including pH, Ec, GPS…etc. Also, he helps interpret geochemical results and water–rock great for recreation, mediocre for irrigation, inappropri- interaction. RMA: She reviewed all the manuscripts before submission and ate for drinking and aquatic use, and acceptable for cat- was responsible for interpreting groundwater quality. All authors read and tle. Group III has relatively acceptable groundwater, and approved the final manuscript. these groundwater samples receive significant recharge Funding from the basement-fractured mountainous igneous “The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received racks. during the preparation of this manuscript.” Availability of data and materials The authors confirm that; all data submitted in this manuscript are intended 6 Conclusion to be public. The data and materials are open to the research community Groundwater is the main source of human potable uses interested in developing best practices in managing materials data. and agriculture in the Delta Wadi Dahab, southeast Sinai. The results show that the groundwater salinity exceeds Declarations the recommended international standard limit for human Ethics approval and consent to participate drinking. The major and minor elements (Si, B, Br, and Sr) Not applicable. give good insights into delineating the recharge sources and investigate the geochemical processes affecting Consent for publication Not applicable. groundwater quality in coastal arid groundwater aquifers. The main recharge for the delta alluvial aquifers comes Competing interests mainly from the northeastern side of the fractured base- The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose. ment granitic rocks in the upstream watershed. The water– Author details rock interaction, seawater mixing, and implications of Division of Water Resources and Arid Land, Hydrogeochemistry Department, brine reject water decline the groundwater quality in the Desert Research Center, Cairo, Egypt. Egypt Desalination Research Center of Excellence, Desert Research Center, Cairo, Egypt. Department of Chemistry, delta. 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Beni-Suef University Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences – Springer Journals
Published: May 26, 2023
Keywords: Dahab delta; Groundwater quality; Groundwater evaluation; Groundwater salinization; Seawater mixing; Water Quality Index (WQI)
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