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Test of Tethered Deorbiting of Space Debris

Test of Tethered Deorbiting of Space Debris Current investigations on space tethers include their application to space debris deorbiting, specifically on the set of manoeu- vres performed by a chaser tug to change the orbital parameters of a target body. Targets can be cooperative spacecraft at the end of their life or uncontrolled objects such as defunct satellites without clearly available capturing interfaces. In this latter case, a link joining tug and target may be misaligned with the target body inertia axes, influencing the attitude of both bodies; in case of rigid links, torques transmitted during tugging operations may overcome the tug attitude control system. This issue is clearly less significant in case of non-rigid connections, such as tethers; furthermore, with such connections the chaser can remain at a safe distance from the target during the whole deorbiting operation. On the other side, the initial phase of tethered space debris removal manoeuvres can be influenced by transient events, such as sudden tether tension spikes, that may cause longitudinal and lateral oscillations and, in case of resonance with the target attitude dynamics, could represent a serious issue for tug safety. In this paper it is proposed to provide the tug with a tether deployer mechanism capable to perform reel-in and reel-out, smoothing loads transmission to the target and damping oscillations. This concept is validated through a representative test campaign performed with the SPAcecRraft Testbed for Autonomous proximity operatioNs experimentS (SPARTANS) on a low friction table. A prototype of the deployer is manufactured and the deployment and rewind of a thin aluminium tape tether is proven. Test results include the verification of the tether visco-elastic characteristics with the direct measurement of spikes and oscillations and the estimation of the proposed system damping capabilities. Keywords Space tethers · Deployment · Active debris removal · Low friction test Abbreviations DoF Degree of freedom ADR Active debris removalEDT Electrodynamic tether CGA Cold gas actuator E.T.PACK Electrodynamic tether technology for pas- sive consumable-less deorbit kit LWT Low-working-function tethers * Lorenzo Olivieri MC Motion capture lorenzo.olivieri@unipd.it PMD Post mission disposal Andrea Valmorbida S-DM Scaled deployment module andrea.valmorbida@unipd.it SPARTANS SP AcecRraft Testbed for Autonomous Giulia Sarego proximity operatioNs experimentS giulia.sarego@unipd.it Enrico Lungavia enrico.lungavia@student.unipd.it 1 Introduction Davide Vertuani davide.vertuani@studenti.unipd.it Since the introduction of the space tether concept [1], a wide Enrico C. Lorenzini number of applications from orbital momentum exchange enrico.lorenzini@unipd.it devices to electrodynamic systems have been proposed; CISAS “G. Colombo”, University of Padova, Via Venezia a complete review can be found in [2–5]. More recently, 13, 35131 Padua, Italy ground tests and numerical models focused on innovative DII, University of Padova, Via Venezia 1, 35131 Padua, Italy uses of space tethers, among them formation flight [ 6, 7], University of Padova, Padua, Italy Vol.:(0123456789) 1 3 116 Advances in Astronautics Science and Technology (2020) 3:115–124 rendezvous and docking maneuvers [8], space tugging 1.1 Tether Deployment Background operations [9], and asteroids [10, 11] and non-cooperative objects [12] capture. One of the most challenging operations with tethers is To date, many investigations of space tethers are for the deployment phase, as several issues have to be taken applications in debris removal. The growing problem into consideration, such as the libration stability during of space debris and their influence on the access to orbit the process [39–41]. The most investigated approach, became commonly recognized by the scientific community employed also on the TSS-1 demonstration [42], starts after the definition of the so-called “Kessler Syndrome” with releasing a tethered tip mass from the host spacecraft [13], introducing the risk of losing access to Earth orbit (i.e. the ETPACK deployer kit from the main spacecraft, or regions due to the constant growth of debris and the conse- the tagging unit from a tugged satellite). Due to the neg- quent catastrophic impacts cascade effect. Despite efforts to ligible authority of gravity gradient forces acting on the reduce new spacecraft influence on the debris environment system after separation, the tip mass is provided with an (e.g., [14, 15]), the recent plans for large constellations [16, initial momentum to reel the tether out; once few hundreds 17] are constantly scrutinized and their short and long term of meters are deployed, the gravity gradient can become influence on the space debris environment stability is under the leading driver in the deployment process. A continuous evaluation [18–20]. In this context the scientific community control of the tip mass is requested during the deployment, is evaluating further mitigation strategies, considering both as uncontrolled oscillations can lead to system instability the utilization of enhanced protections [21] and the imple- (see [43] for a more detailed description of stability condi- mentation of post mission disposal (PMD) [22] and active tions and range). To provide the requested stability, refer- debris removal (ADR) [23] operations. Among the different ence deployment trajectories can be defined and optimal strategies for PMD and ADR [24], Electrodynamic Tethers values for the tip mass initial attitude and velocity can be (EDTs) have been investigated as a reliable and conveni- computed; the values adopted for ETPACK are reported ent solution in low-Earth orbit (LEO) [25, 26]. For further in [38]. information on EDTs and the most recent evolution, the low- The deployer shall therefore be able to follow the pre- working-function tethers (LWTs), see [27–30]. defined deployment profiles by providing the requested The advantages of tether systems are not limited to the initial momentum and by controlling the tape reel-out by disposal manoeuvre, as flexible connections between two passive or active control systems. Mechanical (springs [8, modules reduce the loads transmitted between them with 44, 45]), electro-mechanical (deployed masts [46]) or pro- respect to solid joints. Furthermore, with such connections pulsive (cold gas actuators [38, 47]) systems have been the vehicles involved can remain at a safe distance while proposed to provide the initial momentum, with the latter maintaining a physical connection. For this reason, tethers one selected for ETPACK. With regards to deployment have been also proposed for space tug configurations and mechanisms, they can be classified in three main cate- both experimental investigation [31, 32] and simulation gories: stationary spools, rotating reels, and folded “ori- activities [9, 33, 34] have been carried out. gami”, depending on the tether stowing strategy; again, In this context, the H2020 Future Emerging Technolo- for this work a rotating reel configuration was selected. gies FET OPEN Project E.T.PACK—Electrodynamic Tether Among the several in-space (e.g.: TSS-1 [42, 48], Technology for Passive Consumable-less Deorbit Kit [35] is ProSEDS [49]—cancelled after Shuttle Columbia acci- currently investigating a number of technologies for PMD dent, YES II [50, 51], SEDS [52], SEDS II [53]) and with EDTs [36, 37], including safe tether deployment [38]. ground verifications on deployment mechanisms ([ 44, In this paper, some preliminary tests on tether technologies 45, 54]), only the TSS-1 [48] and the STAR prototype for deorbiting are presented. In particular, a tether deploy- [45] demonstrated the ability to reel in. More recently, the ment and retrieval mechanism developed in the framework TEPCE CubeSat technology demonstrator was conceived of ETPACK project is introduced. A breadboard prototype and flown to deploy a 1-km-long tether; to date, confir - of the deployer was manufactured and the deployment and mation of 500-m deployment is available [55]. The low rewind of a thin aluminium tape tether were tested. Test success rate of tethered systems can be related to the com- results include the determination of the tether visco-elastic plexity of deployment operations, in which minimal dis- characteristics, the direct measurement of spikes and oscil- turbances such as internal components friction can greatly lations and the estimation of the proposed system damping influence the reel-out process up to stop completely the capabilities. The prototype, while designed principally for tether deployment. For this reason, the proposed deployer the ETPACK kit tether deployment, can be employed also employs a system of motorized pulleys to control the tether for tethered systems formation flight and space tugging, motion and to decouple the internal mechanism dynamics thanks to the capability to control both the tether deploy- from the external motion subjected to orbital dynamics. ment and retrieval. 1 3 Advances in Astronautics Science and Technology (2020) 3:115–124 117 An important constraint for E.T.PACK deployer mecha- tip mass during the deployment, as well as perform the reel- nism is the utilization of a tape tether instead of a round in operations by switching the motor function. wire. This was first introduced by BETs project [28] due to In more details, a tether deployment procedure (see [38] tapes higher survivability to space debris impacts [56], their for E.T.PACK reference profiles) starts with the release of increased performance in collecting electrons and the faster the module. In a first acceleration phase, the CGA provides deorbiting they provide. The utilization of a tape greatly enough momentum to the tip mass and keeps the tape in affects the design of the deployer mechanism, as the bulk tension, while the pulleys system controls the tether deploy- and shape of a tape coil is different from a wire one, as well ment. In this phase, the brake is not active (i.e., the brake as the extraction technology to deploy it. torque is negligible) letting the module to accelerate. After this stage the deployment motion is controlled only by the 1.2 Paper Contents pulleys, the tip mass momentum, and, after a sufficient length of tape is deployed, by the gravity gradient. In this The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Sec- second phase, the tape velocity is not constant and while the tion 2 presents the deployer concept, while Sect. 3 intro- pulleys can control the deployment profile, the reel rotation duces the experimental setup employed for tests reported is controlled by the brake to avoid tape unwinding inside and discussed in Sect. 4. the module. On the contrary, rewind procedure requires the actuation of the reel; in this case the brake is switched to the motor and controls the reel-in procedure, while the pulleys 2 Tether deployment module system is not actuated. The capability of the proposed module to deploy and The deployer mechanism described in this work in the retrieve a tether was assessed with a campaign of tests on a framework of the E.T.PACK project is sketched in Fig. 1. low-friction table, as described in the following sections. It It consists of a Cold Gas Actuator (CGA) propulsive unit, is important to assess the early separation phase of deploy- employing two nozzles, a tank, and the relative fluidic sys- ment because the thrust direction depends on the attitude tem, and a deployment/reel-in subsystem, composed by a of the deployer module and this coupling effect must be rotating reel, a system of pulleys to control the tape deploy- analysed. Similarly, the tether retrieval requires further ment, and a motor coupled to the reel to brake it during investigation because, due to the conservation of angular deployment and actuate it during reel-in operations. Thanks momentum, any attitude motion of the tip mass is amplified to the pulleys system, the proposed layout is able to decouple by the rewind process. the tether dynamics outside of the deployment module from one of the internal mechanisms, leading to a safer deploy- ment. With this configuration, the whole module can act as 3 Experimental Setup The experimental setup consists of a scaled deployment module (S-DM) mounted on board an air carriage system including three air bearings on its bottom part for a low- friction motion on a low-friction test table. The S-DM is shown in Fig. 2, with its main subsystems highlighted: the CGA, the deploy and reel-in subsystem, and the control and communication electronics. The whole mod- ule is painted in black to reduce the interference by multiple reflexions with the laboratory motion capture system. The air carriage system and the test table are part of the SPARTANS facility [57–60], that can be seen in Fig. 3. The facility consists in a 3 × 2 m test table and a spacecraft test mock-up (composed by a translational module and an atti- tude module); a Motion Capture (MC) system with 6 infra- red cameras tracks the motion of the mock-up. In the investigated configuration the S-DM is directly mounted on SPARTANS mock-up translational module replacing the original attitude module; the total mass of the free-floating system is about 25 kg, comparable to the E.T.PACK mass. With this configuration, the S-DM acquires Fig. 1 Sketch of the proposed deployment module 1 3 118 Advances in Astronautics Science and Technology (2020) 3:115–124 transient loads transmitted by the tether during the opera- tions simulated in the laboratory experiments. A load cell is placed on the interface between the tether and the fixed structure to assess the magnitude of the transmitted loads. The S-DM is equipped with a Wi-Fi communication link; an external control station is employed to start experiments, log data and monitor the whole system. This experimental setup allows the investigation of tether proximity operations (i.e., the early phase of deployment and the final stage of reel-in). Specifically, the coupling between translation and attitude dynamics was evaluated, as well as the effect of the CGA thrust on the deployment profile. 4 Experimental Campaign The experimental campaign reported in this section con- sisted in four different activities: the verification of (1) the CGA thrusters force authority and (2) the tape mechani- cal characteristics and the tests of (3) deployment and (4) retrieval manoeuvers. 4.1 Thrusters Authority Fig. 2 Scaled deployment module with CGA (A—fluidic system, B—tank, C—nozzles), deployment and reel-in subsystem (D—rotat- The CGA thrusters are designed as simple convergent noz- ing reel, E—brake/reel-in motor, F—pulleys system), and G—elec- zles and a linear relation between inlet pressure and thrust tronics force is expected. The inlet pressure is directly measured with an on-board sensor placed in the low-pressure section of the fluidic subsystem; the data live stream is transmitted through the Wi-Fi link to the control station. To evaluate the thrust, the S-DM is connected with a thin line of about 1.5 m to a load cell constrained to one vertex of the test table; independently from the mechanical characteristics of the line, once the system is in steady-state configuration (i.e. the S-DM does not present rotational and translational motions) the load cell measures the force actuated by the two thrusters on board the S-DM. Experimental results (red dots) are reported in Fig. 4 with a first-order fit (blue dashed line), indicating a linear relation between the inlet static pressure and trust authority, with a coefficient of determi- nation R = 0.9997. The thrust levels are comparable to those required by the E.T.PACK reference deployment profile [38]. Fig. 3 SPARTANS test table and free-floating module 4.2 Tape Mechanical Characteristics Verification three degrees of freedom (DoF), the two translations on the The stiffness and damping of a flexible line can be verified test table and the rotation around the local vertical axis. The by applying a constant tensile load in slack conditions and free end of the tether is constrained to a dedicated structure then measuring the line dynamic response in terms of ten- on one edge of the test table. The constraint on the tether sion spikes, oscillations, and damping. With the proposed end is an adequate approximation of a larger mother-sat- experimental setup, the verification can be performed by ellite (i.e., with a mass ratio > 10) that is unaffected by the constraining a section of the line with known length to a 1 3 Advances in Astronautics Science and Technology (2020) 3:115–124 119 fixed structure and to the S-DM, and then actuating the S-DM thrusters with the line in the initial slack condition. Due to the high stiffness of the employed aluminium tape (about 30 kN/m for a sample 1.5 m long), the verification is performed in two steps. First, the setup employed for thrust- ers authority verification is used to test the proposed method with a 1.5 m long polyamide line with a diameter of 0.3 mm (theoretical stiffness of 129 N/m); the S-DM motion detected with the MC system is reconstructed and compared to simu- lations, as well as loads measured with the load cell mounted on the constrained end. In a second phase, the line is sub- stituted with the aluminium tape and the test is repeated with the same parameters but without the load cell, whose stiffness is comparable to that of the tape and might there- fore invalidate the experiment. This approach allows a first validation of the proposed method with the elastic polyam- ide line and then the verification of the tape characteristics. Fig. 4 Measured authority of one thruster (red) and linear fit (blue dashed lines) Fig. 5 Polyamide line mechanical characteristics verification with low (left) and high (right) thrust level: comparison of experimental data (solid blue lines) with simulations (dashed red lines). From top to bottom: S-DM translation, S-DM velocity, and force on the constraint 1 3 120 Advances in Astronautics Science and Technology (2020) 3:115–124 Results for the polyamide line are reported in Fig. 5, for constant-velocity phase at 0.1 m/s. The other parameters two different thrust conditions (0.38 and 0.62 N). It can (CGA thrust, S-DM mass) are comparable to the E.T.PACK be seen that experimental data match simulations results; reference ones [38]. small discrepancies can be related to residual friction effects Figure 7 reports the results of a deployment test, with the between the module and the test table. reconstructed trajectory from the MC system, the compari- Aluminium tape verification results can be seen in Fig.  6. son of the deployment profiles with the reference ones, and As previously mentioned, due to the higher stiffness of some frames from the deployment video. It can be noted that the tape with respect to the polyamide line the load cell is the S-DM is capable to follow the pre-imposed deployment removed from the setup to avoid undesired effects. To match profile, with minimal discrepancies related to the dynamical simulations with experimental data a high damping coef- response of the tape (small oscillations and spikes). ficient (480 N s/m) is employed; the consequent damping It can be noted that the S-DM is subjected to a small ratio of 0.22 is higher than expected for aluminium alloys rotation on its centre of mass around the vertical axis, which and can be related to memory effects of the tape sample is aligned to the tape coil axis: due to angular momentum undergoing testing. conservation, the initial coil angular acceleration causes a small counter-rotation on the module. This issue will be 4.3 Deployment Manoeuvre addressed in future upgrades of the deployment hardware with a dedicated attitude control strategy modulating the The objective of this test is the verification of the deployer module thrusters firing. It shall be underlined that the tape capability to follow a predefined reference deployment tra- tension creates a restoring torque on the S-DM opposing the jectory, in terms of tether length and length rate. While in coil-induced torque, limiting the rotation to less than 45 deg. operative configurations the deployment would last tens of minutes (up to 1 h in [38]), the test table available area limits 4.4 Reel‑In Operations Example it to less than 1 min. Despite such constraint, the test allows to determine the behaviour of the deployment system and The capability to reel-in the tape is an important feature of to verify the capability to follow a reference reel-out pro- the proposed system. Figure 8 reports an example of a reel- file. Furthermore, the test aims to verify the capability of in manoeuvre at a constant retrieval velocity of 0.02 m/s, the deployment motor to follow a profile with a high initial with the reconstructed trajectory from the MC system, the acceleration as well as to monitor the effect of such accelera- reel-in and reel-in rate profiles, and some frames from the tion on the S-DM dynamics. The reference profile, therefore, corresponding video. In this test after the initial acceleration, presents an initial acceleration of 7 mm/s (about one-third the coil rotation is constant; the thrusters are firing during of the in-orbit case value, as reported in [38]), and then a the whole manoeuvre to maintain the tape in tension. Again, Fig. 6 Aluminium tape mechanical characteristics verification with low (right) and high (left) thrust level: comparison of experimental data (solid blue lines) with simulations (dashed red lines). From top to bottom: S-DM translation and S-DM velocity 1 3 Advances in Astronautics Science and Technology (2020) 3:115–124 121 Fig. 7 Deployment test, with reconstructed module position from Motion Capture (top left), tether deployed length and velocity compared with reference profile (bottom left), and captured video frames (right) Fig. 8 Reel-in test, with reconstructed module position from Motion Capture (top left), tether deployed length and velocity (bottom left), and captured video frames (right) 1 3 122 Advances in Astronautics Science and Technology (2020) 3:115–124 as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, it can be noted an initial rotation of the S-DM due to the provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes initial angular acceleration of the tape coil; as expected, the were made. The images or other third party material in this article are tape creates a small restoring torque opposing the module included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated rotation. otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not This test demonstrates the proposed system general capa- permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will bility to reel-in at a constant velocity; further investigation need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a will be performed to verify the capability to follow a refer- copy of this licence, visit http://creativ ecommons .or g/licenses/b y/4.0/. ence retrieval profile and the possibility to perform it with- out the assistance of the propulsion system. References 5 Conclusions 1. Grossi MD, Colombo G (1978) Interactions of a tethered satellite system with the ionosphere. 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Valmorbida A, Mazzucato M, Pertile M (2020) Calibration pro- for deorbiting spacecraft in LEO. In: 6th European conference on cedures of a vision-based system for relative motion estimation space debris, April 22–25, Darmstadt, Germany between satellites flying in proximity. Measurement 151:107161. 57. Valmorbida A, Mazzucato M, Tronco S, Pertile M, Lorenzini EC ISSN:0263-2241 (2017) Design of a ground-based facility to reproduce satellite 1 3 http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png "Advances in Astronautics Science and Technology" Springer Journals

Test of Tethered Deorbiting of Space Debris

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Springer Journals
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Copyright © The Author(s) 2020
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2524-5252
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10.1007/s42423-020-00068-9
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Abstract

Current investigations on space tethers include their application to space debris deorbiting, specifically on the set of manoeu- vres performed by a chaser tug to change the orbital parameters of a target body. Targets can be cooperative spacecraft at the end of their life or uncontrolled objects such as defunct satellites without clearly available capturing interfaces. In this latter case, a link joining tug and target may be misaligned with the target body inertia axes, influencing the attitude of both bodies; in case of rigid links, torques transmitted during tugging operations may overcome the tug attitude control system. This issue is clearly less significant in case of non-rigid connections, such as tethers; furthermore, with such connections the chaser can remain at a safe distance from the target during the whole deorbiting operation. On the other side, the initial phase of tethered space debris removal manoeuvres can be influenced by transient events, such as sudden tether tension spikes, that may cause longitudinal and lateral oscillations and, in case of resonance with the target attitude dynamics, could represent a serious issue for tug safety. In this paper it is proposed to provide the tug with a tether deployer mechanism capable to perform reel-in and reel-out, smoothing loads transmission to the target and damping oscillations. This concept is validated through a representative test campaign performed with the SPAcecRraft Testbed for Autonomous proximity operatioNs experimentS (SPARTANS) on a low friction table. A prototype of the deployer is manufactured and the deployment and rewind of a thin aluminium tape tether is proven. Test results include the verification of the tether visco-elastic characteristics with the direct measurement of spikes and oscillations and the estimation of the proposed system damping capabilities. Keywords Space tethers · Deployment · Active debris removal · Low friction test Abbreviations DoF Degree of freedom ADR Active debris removalEDT Electrodynamic tether CGA Cold gas actuator E.T.PACK Electrodynamic tether technology for pas- sive consumable-less deorbit kit LWT Low-working-function tethers * Lorenzo Olivieri MC Motion capture lorenzo.olivieri@unipd.it PMD Post mission disposal Andrea Valmorbida S-DM Scaled deployment module andrea.valmorbida@unipd.it SPARTANS SP AcecRraft Testbed for Autonomous Giulia Sarego proximity operatioNs experimentS giulia.sarego@unipd.it Enrico Lungavia enrico.lungavia@student.unipd.it 1 Introduction Davide Vertuani davide.vertuani@studenti.unipd.it Since the introduction of the space tether concept [1], a wide Enrico C. Lorenzini number of applications from orbital momentum exchange enrico.lorenzini@unipd.it devices to electrodynamic systems have been proposed; CISAS “G. Colombo”, University of Padova, Via Venezia a complete review can be found in [2–5]. More recently, 13, 35131 Padua, Italy ground tests and numerical models focused on innovative DII, University of Padova, Via Venezia 1, 35131 Padua, Italy uses of space tethers, among them formation flight [ 6, 7], University of Padova, Padua, Italy Vol.:(0123456789) 1 3 116 Advances in Astronautics Science and Technology (2020) 3:115–124 rendezvous and docking maneuvers [8], space tugging 1.1 Tether Deployment Background operations [9], and asteroids [10, 11] and non-cooperative objects [12] capture. One of the most challenging operations with tethers is To date, many investigations of space tethers are for the deployment phase, as several issues have to be taken applications in debris removal. The growing problem into consideration, such as the libration stability during of space debris and their influence on the access to orbit the process [39–41]. The most investigated approach, became commonly recognized by the scientific community employed also on the TSS-1 demonstration [42], starts after the definition of the so-called “Kessler Syndrome” with releasing a tethered tip mass from the host spacecraft [13], introducing the risk of losing access to Earth orbit (i.e. the ETPACK deployer kit from the main spacecraft, or regions due to the constant growth of debris and the conse- the tagging unit from a tugged satellite). Due to the neg- quent catastrophic impacts cascade effect. Despite efforts to ligible authority of gravity gradient forces acting on the reduce new spacecraft influence on the debris environment system after separation, the tip mass is provided with an (e.g., [14, 15]), the recent plans for large constellations [16, initial momentum to reel the tether out; once few hundreds 17] are constantly scrutinized and their short and long term of meters are deployed, the gravity gradient can become influence on the space debris environment stability is under the leading driver in the deployment process. A continuous evaluation [18–20]. In this context the scientific community control of the tip mass is requested during the deployment, is evaluating further mitigation strategies, considering both as uncontrolled oscillations can lead to system instability the utilization of enhanced protections [21] and the imple- (see [43] for a more detailed description of stability condi- mentation of post mission disposal (PMD) [22] and active tions and range). To provide the requested stability, refer- debris removal (ADR) [23] operations. Among the different ence deployment trajectories can be defined and optimal strategies for PMD and ADR [24], Electrodynamic Tethers values for the tip mass initial attitude and velocity can be (EDTs) have been investigated as a reliable and conveni- computed; the values adopted for ETPACK are reported ent solution in low-Earth orbit (LEO) [25, 26]. For further in [38]. information on EDTs and the most recent evolution, the low- The deployer shall therefore be able to follow the pre- working-function tethers (LWTs), see [27–30]. defined deployment profiles by providing the requested The advantages of tether systems are not limited to the initial momentum and by controlling the tape reel-out by disposal manoeuvre, as flexible connections between two passive or active control systems. Mechanical (springs [8, modules reduce the loads transmitted between them with 44, 45]), electro-mechanical (deployed masts [46]) or pro- respect to solid joints. Furthermore, with such connections pulsive (cold gas actuators [38, 47]) systems have been the vehicles involved can remain at a safe distance while proposed to provide the initial momentum, with the latter maintaining a physical connection. For this reason, tethers one selected for ETPACK. With regards to deployment have been also proposed for space tug configurations and mechanisms, they can be classified in three main cate- both experimental investigation [31, 32] and simulation gories: stationary spools, rotating reels, and folded “ori- activities [9, 33, 34] have been carried out. gami”, depending on the tether stowing strategy; again, In this context, the H2020 Future Emerging Technolo- for this work a rotating reel configuration was selected. gies FET OPEN Project E.T.PACK—Electrodynamic Tether Among the several in-space (e.g.: TSS-1 [42, 48], Technology for Passive Consumable-less Deorbit Kit [35] is ProSEDS [49]—cancelled after Shuttle Columbia acci- currently investigating a number of technologies for PMD dent, YES II [50, 51], SEDS [52], SEDS II [53]) and with EDTs [36, 37], including safe tether deployment [38]. ground verifications on deployment mechanisms ([ 44, In this paper, some preliminary tests on tether technologies 45, 54]), only the TSS-1 [48] and the STAR prototype for deorbiting are presented. In particular, a tether deploy- [45] demonstrated the ability to reel in. More recently, the ment and retrieval mechanism developed in the framework TEPCE CubeSat technology demonstrator was conceived of ETPACK project is introduced. A breadboard prototype and flown to deploy a 1-km-long tether; to date, confir - of the deployer was manufactured and the deployment and mation of 500-m deployment is available [55]. The low rewind of a thin aluminium tape tether were tested. Test success rate of tethered systems can be related to the com- results include the determination of the tether visco-elastic plexity of deployment operations, in which minimal dis- characteristics, the direct measurement of spikes and oscil- turbances such as internal components friction can greatly lations and the estimation of the proposed system damping influence the reel-out process up to stop completely the capabilities. The prototype, while designed principally for tether deployment. For this reason, the proposed deployer the ETPACK kit tether deployment, can be employed also employs a system of motorized pulleys to control the tether for tethered systems formation flight and space tugging, motion and to decouple the internal mechanism dynamics thanks to the capability to control both the tether deploy- from the external motion subjected to orbital dynamics. ment and retrieval. 1 3 Advances in Astronautics Science and Technology (2020) 3:115–124 117 An important constraint for E.T.PACK deployer mecha- tip mass during the deployment, as well as perform the reel- nism is the utilization of a tape tether instead of a round in operations by switching the motor function. wire. This was first introduced by BETs project [28] due to In more details, a tether deployment procedure (see [38] tapes higher survivability to space debris impacts [56], their for E.T.PACK reference profiles) starts with the release of increased performance in collecting electrons and the faster the module. In a first acceleration phase, the CGA provides deorbiting they provide. The utilization of a tape greatly enough momentum to the tip mass and keeps the tape in affects the design of the deployer mechanism, as the bulk tension, while the pulleys system controls the tether deploy- and shape of a tape coil is different from a wire one, as well ment. In this phase, the brake is not active (i.e., the brake as the extraction technology to deploy it. torque is negligible) letting the module to accelerate. After this stage the deployment motion is controlled only by the 1.2 Paper Contents pulleys, the tip mass momentum, and, after a sufficient length of tape is deployed, by the gravity gradient. In this The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Sec- second phase, the tape velocity is not constant and while the tion 2 presents the deployer concept, while Sect. 3 intro- pulleys can control the deployment profile, the reel rotation duces the experimental setup employed for tests reported is controlled by the brake to avoid tape unwinding inside and discussed in Sect. 4. the module. On the contrary, rewind procedure requires the actuation of the reel; in this case the brake is switched to the motor and controls the reel-in procedure, while the pulleys 2 Tether deployment module system is not actuated. The capability of the proposed module to deploy and The deployer mechanism described in this work in the retrieve a tether was assessed with a campaign of tests on a framework of the E.T.PACK project is sketched in Fig. 1. low-friction table, as described in the following sections. It It consists of a Cold Gas Actuator (CGA) propulsive unit, is important to assess the early separation phase of deploy- employing two nozzles, a tank, and the relative fluidic sys- ment because the thrust direction depends on the attitude tem, and a deployment/reel-in subsystem, composed by a of the deployer module and this coupling effect must be rotating reel, a system of pulleys to control the tape deploy- analysed. Similarly, the tether retrieval requires further ment, and a motor coupled to the reel to brake it during investigation because, due to the conservation of angular deployment and actuate it during reel-in operations. Thanks momentum, any attitude motion of the tip mass is amplified to the pulleys system, the proposed layout is able to decouple by the rewind process. the tether dynamics outside of the deployment module from one of the internal mechanisms, leading to a safer deploy- ment. With this configuration, the whole module can act as 3 Experimental Setup The experimental setup consists of a scaled deployment module (S-DM) mounted on board an air carriage system including three air bearings on its bottom part for a low- friction motion on a low-friction test table. The S-DM is shown in Fig. 2, with its main subsystems highlighted: the CGA, the deploy and reel-in subsystem, and the control and communication electronics. The whole mod- ule is painted in black to reduce the interference by multiple reflexions with the laboratory motion capture system. The air carriage system and the test table are part of the SPARTANS facility [57–60], that can be seen in Fig. 3. The facility consists in a 3 × 2 m test table and a spacecraft test mock-up (composed by a translational module and an atti- tude module); a Motion Capture (MC) system with 6 infra- red cameras tracks the motion of the mock-up. In the investigated configuration the S-DM is directly mounted on SPARTANS mock-up translational module replacing the original attitude module; the total mass of the free-floating system is about 25 kg, comparable to the E.T.PACK mass. With this configuration, the S-DM acquires Fig. 1 Sketch of the proposed deployment module 1 3 118 Advances in Astronautics Science and Technology (2020) 3:115–124 transient loads transmitted by the tether during the opera- tions simulated in the laboratory experiments. A load cell is placed on the interface between the tether and the fixed structure to assess the magnitude of the transmitted loads. The S-DM is equipped with a Wi-Fi communication link; an external control station is employed to start experiments, log data and monitor the whole system. This experimental setup allows the investigation of tether proximity operations (i.e., the early phase of deployment and the final stage of reel-in). Specifically, the coupling between translation and attitude dynamics was evaluated, as well as the effect of the CGA thrust on the deployment profile. 4 Experimental Campaign The experimental campaign reported in this section con- sisted in four different activities: the verification of (1) the CGA thrusters force authority and (2) the tape mechani- cal characteristics and the tests of (3) deployment and (4) retrieval manoeuvers. 4.1 Thrusters Authority Fig. 2 Scaled deployment module with CGA (A—fluidic system, B—tank, C—nozzles), deployment and reel-in subsystem (D—rotat- The CGA thrusters are designed as simple convergent noz- ing reel, E—brake/reel-in motor, F—pulleys system), and G—elec- zles and a linear relation between inlet pressure and thrust tronics force is expected. The inlet pressure is directly measured with an on-board sensor placed in the low-pressure section of the fluidic subsystem; the data live stream is transmitted through the Wi-Fi link to the control station. To evaluate the thrust, the S-DM is connected with a thin line of about 1.5 m to a load cell constrained to one vertex of the test table; independently from the mechanical characteristics of the line, once the system is in steady-state configuration (i.e. the S-DM does not present rotational and translational motions) the load cell measures the force actuated by the two thrusters on board the S-DM. Experimental results (red dots) are reported in Fig. 4 with a first-order fit (blue dashed line), indicating a linear relation between the inlet static pressure and trust authority, with a coefficient of determi- nation R = 0.9997. The thrust levels are comparable to those required by the E.T.PACK reference deployment profile [38]. Fig. 3 SPARTANS test table and free-floating module 4.2 Tape Mechanical Characteristics Verification three degrees of freedom (DoF), the two translations on the The stiffness and damping of a flexible line can be verified test table and the rotation around the local vertical axis. The by applying a constant tensile load in slack conditions and free end of the tether is constrained to a dedicated structure then measuring the line dynamic response in terms of ten- on one edge of the test table. The constraint on the tether sion spikes, oscillations, and damping. With the proposed end is an adequate approximation of a larger mother-sat- experimental setup, the verification can be performed by ellite (i.e., with a mass ratio > 10) that is unaffected by the constraining a section of the line with known length to a 1 3 Advances in Astronautics Science and Technology (2020) 3:115–124 119 fixed structure and to the S-DM, and then actuating the S-DM thrusters with the line in the initial slack condition. Due to the high stiffness of the employed aluminium tape (about 30 kN/m for a sample 1.5 m long), the verification is performed in two steps. First, the setup employed for thrust- ers authority verification is used to test the proposed method with a 1.5 m long polyamide line with a diameter of 0.3 mm (theoretical stiffness of 129 N/m); the S-DM motion detected with the MC system is reconstructed and compared to simu- lations, as well as loads measured with the load cell mounted on the constrained end. In a second phase, the line is sub- stituted with the aluminium tape and the test is repeated with the same parameters but without the load cell, whose stiffness is comparable to that of the tape and might there- fore invalidate the experiment. This approach allows a first validation of the proposed method with the elastic polyam- ide line and then the verification of the tape characteristics. Fig. 4 Measured authority of one thruster (red) and linear fit (blue dashed lines) Fig. 5 Polyamide line mechanical characteristics verification with low (left) and high (right) thrust level: comparison of experimental data (solid blue lines) with simulations (dashed red lines). From top to bottom: S-DM translation, S-DM velocity, and force on the constraint 1 3 120 Advances in Astronautics Science and Technology (2020) 3:115–124 Results for the polyamide line are reported in Fig. 5, for constant-velocity phase at 0.1 m/s. The other parameters two different thrust conditions (0.38 and 0.62 N). It can (CGA thrust, S-DM mass) are comparable to the E.T.PACK be seen that experimental data match simulations results; reference ones [38]. small discrepancies can be related to residual friction effects Figure 7 reports the results of a deployment test, with the between the module and the test table. reconstructed trajectory from the MC system, the compari- Aluminium tape verification results can be seen in Fig.  6. son of the deployment profiles with the reference ones, and As previously mentioned, due to the higher stiffness of some frames from the deployment video. It can be noted that the tape with respect to the polyamide line the load cell is the S-DM is capable to follow the pre-imposed deployment removed from the setup to avoid undesired effects. To match profile, with minimal discrepancies related to the dynamical simulations with experimental data a high damping coef- response of the tape (small oscillations and spikes). ficient (480 N s/m) is employed; the consequent damping It can be noted that the S-DM is subjected to a small ratio of 0.22 is higher than expected for aluminium alloys rotation on its centre of mass around the vertical axis, which and can be related to memory effects of the tape sample is aligned to the tape coil axis: due to angular momentum undergoing testing. conservation, the initial coil angular acceleration causes a small counter-rotation on the module. This issue will be 4.3 Deployment Manoeuvre addressed in future upgrades of the deployment hardware with a dedicated attitude control strategy modulating the The objective of this test is the verification of the deployer module thrusters firing. It shall be underlined that the tape capability to follow a predefined reference deployment tra- tension creates a restoring torque on the S-DM opposing the jectory, in terms of tether length and length rate. While in coil-induced torque, limiting the rotation to less than 45 deg. operative configurations the deployment would last tens of minutes (up to 1 h in [38]), the test table available area limits 4.4 Reel‑In Operations Example it to less than 1 min. Despite such constraint, the test allows to determine the behaviour of the deployment system and The capability to reel-in the tape is an important feature of to verify the capability to follow a reference reel-out pro- the proposed system. Figure 8 reports an example of a reel- file. Furthermore, the test aims to verify the capability of in manoeuvre at a constant retrieval velocity of 0.02 m/s, the deployment motor to follow a profile with a high initial with the reconstructed trajectory from the MC system, the acceleration as well as to monitor the effect of such accelera- reel-in and reel-in rate profiles, and some frames from the tion on the S-DM dynamics. The reference profile, therefore, corresponding video. In this test after the initial acceleration, presents an initial acceleration of 7 mm/s (about one-third the coil rotation is constant; the thrusters are firing during of the in-orbit case value, as reported in [38]), and then a the whole manoeuvre to maintain the tape in tension. Again, Fig. 6 Aluminium tape mechanical characteristics verification with low (right) and high (left) thrust level: comparison of experimental data (solid blue lines) with simulations (dashed red lines). From top to bottom: S-DM translation and S-DM velocity 1 3 Advances in Astronautics Science and Technology (2020) 3:115–124 121 Fig. 7 Deployment test, with reconstructed module position from Motion Capture (top left), tether deployed length and velocity compared with reference profile (bottom left), and captured video frames (right) Fig. 8 Reel-in test, with reconstructed module position from Motion Capture (top left), tether deployed length and velocity (bottom left), and captured video frames (right) 1 3 122 Advances in Astronautics Science and Technology (2020) 3:115–124 as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, it can be noted an initial rotation of the S-DM due to the provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes initial angular acceleration of the tape coil; as expected, the were made. The images or other third party material in this article are tape creates a small restoring torque opposing the module included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated rotation. otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not This test demonstrates the proposed system general capa- permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will bility to reel-in at a constant velocity; further investigation need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a will be performed to verify the capability to follow a refer- copy of this licence, visit http://creativ ecommons .or g/licenses/b y/4.0/. ence retrieval profile and the possibility to perform it with- out the assistance of the propulsion system. References 5 Conclusions 1. Grossi MD, Colombo G (1978) Interactions of a tethered satellite system with the ionosphere. In: Wu ST (ed) Proceedings of the University of Alabama/NASA workshop on the uses of a tethered This paper presented the low-friction tests of a tether satellite system, pp 176–181 deployer and reel-in system developed in the framework 2. Cosmo ML, Lorenzini EC (1997) Tethers in space hand- of the H2020 ETPACK project. The system is based on a book. Resource online https ://www.nasa.gov/cente rs/marsh all/ pdf/337451main _T ethers_In_Space _Handb ook_Secti on_1_2.pdf rotating coil concept, with a system of pulleys to control the 3. Cartmell MP, McKenzie DJ (2008) A review of space tether deployment and a motor coupled to the coil to brake it dur- research. Prog Aerosp Sci 44(1):1–21 ing the reel-out and actuate it for the reel-in. The proposed 4. Chen Y, Huang R, Ren X, He L, He Y (2013) History of the tether system is integrated on a small module equipped with a cold concept and tether missions: a review. 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Huang P, Zhang F (2020) Theory and applications of multi-tethers in space. Springer, Berlin A controlled deployment test demonstrated the system 8. Olivieri L, Sansone F, Duzzi M, Francesconi A (2019) Ted pro- capability to reel-out the tape following a reference trajec- ject: conjugating technology development and educational activi- tory; it has been found that the angular acceleration of the ties. Aerospace 6(6):73 tape coil affects the attitude of the deployment module but 9. Mantellato R, Olivieri L, Lorenzini EC (2017) Study of dynamical stability of tethered systems during space tug maneuvers. Acta does not influence the deployment profile. Similarly, a reel- Astronaut 138:559–569 in test demonstrated the capability of the proposed system 10. Mashayekhi MJ, Misra AK (2014) Optimization of tether-assisted to retrieve the tape. asteroid deflection. J Guid Control Dyn 37(3):898–906 It can be concluded that the proposed system demon- 11. 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