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- Springer Journals
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- Copyright © The Author(s) 2023
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- 2309-4710
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- 10.1007/s43673-022-00073-0
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Abstract
Carbon-based materials (CM) growth techniques include common growth factors for meta-photonics-heterostruc- ture, holographic displays, and lasers. In this article, a review of basic growth using several sources is presented. The solid and gas sources of CVD and PLD techniques are discussed. Additionally, doping types and the fabrication of the CM devices are covered to satisfy the requirements of the light emitters’ functionality in the physics of materials as fol- lows: (a) direct bandgap, (b) UV range of 0.1 μm < λ < 0.4 μm, 12.40 eV < E > 3.10 eV, and (c) p-n junction formation. G G Additionally, conversion of injected electrical current into light in the semiconductor materials using the anti-elec- trons process for creating light emitters is proposed. Therefore, this review study explores the potential of the selected CM sources as an inexpensive and abundantly available renewable natural source for highly crystalline nanolayers. The CM status of epitaxial thin-film growth is introduced as well as device-processing technologies for prediction. Finally, the positron process in direct light conversion is discussed. Keywords CM growth technology, Crystal growth (bulk and thin films), Meta-photonics-heterostructure, CM lasers, Anti-electron of the light emitter was noted from semiconductor diode 1 Introduction as a Russian, Oleg Vladimirovich Losev, realized the Semiconductor-based light emitters are a key component light emitter [1]. Zheludev et al. previously indicated of this century’s technology. Light emitters, which have the “Losev’s paper facsimile” (see Fig. 1) [1, 2]. Soviet great historical significance, require continual devel - researcher Losev was awarded a Ph.D. at Ioffe Physical- opment to be the optimal energy resource. Yet despite Technical Institute in St. Petersburg, Russia. Losev made huge progress in efficiency over the centuries, there are several breakthroughs in solid-state optoelectronics, such physical limits to the wide range of wavelengths. Trac- as the first semiconductor amplifier and generator [3]. ing the invention’s birth with a clear roadmap toward its With his efforts, major advances in semiconductors came broader impact and predicting its potential is critical for to life. Following that, the father of the semiconductor the future optoelectronic industry. The initial discovery laser [4], Prof. Zhores Alferov at Ioffe Physical-Techni - cal Institute, alongside Prof. Herbert Kroemer at UCSB *Correspondence: Department of Materials, was received the Physics Nobel Arwa Saud Abbas Prize for developing heterostructures and GaN epitaxial asabbas@kacst.edu.sa National Center of Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials, King layers growth. Furthermore, after three decades of strug- Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST ), Riyadh 11442-6086, gle to produce the elusive blue light emitters diode (LED), Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Isamu Akasaki and Hiroshi Amano first made a simple © The Author(s) 2023. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http:// creat iveco mmons. org/ licen ses/ by/4. 0/. Abbas AAPPS Bulletin (2023) 33:4 Page 2 of 12 Fig. 1 “One of the historical papers: Losev’s facsimile patent for light emitters” by NIKOLAY ZHELUDEV, Losev pioneered the realization of light emitters potential for telecommunication. Losev awarded a Ph.D. at the Ioffe Institute in 1938 [1, 6, 7]. Reproduced with permission [1]. Copyright 2007, Nature Publishing GaN-based diode from semiconductors in the late 1980s. electrical [13]. Regarding conductivity, converting mate- Next, Shuji Nakamura discovered the remaining missing rial is required. The natural diamond is unable to be layers needed to produce a blue LED in the early 1990s. selected as p/n-type electrodes due to its high electrical That led to receiving the Physics Nobel Prize [5]. resistivity. The solid source from recycled CM supplied In selecting the optimal material to overcome the exist- by the production of oil, crude, and coal combustion ing limitations in optoelectronic semiconductors, the of coal-fired power plants [14, 15] is a raw waste prod- wide bandgap diamond is considered a carbon-based uct comprising a carbon content [16, 17]; therefore, it is material (CM) that can be doped to stimulate p/n- necessary to establish a technique for recycling the waste types. Therefore, Aleksov et al. reported the diamond- CM into valuable components which could be used for based bipolar diode fabrication [8] emission realization wide-ranging applications in the optoelectronic indus- [9–12]. Zaitsev et al. discussed the nitrogen-vacancy trial, and environmental. (NV) defects properties, the prediction of electrically u Th s, this review study explores the potential of the driven single-photon source design is with the diamond selected CM solid or gas sources as an inexpensive and A bbas AAPPS Bulletin (2023) 33:4 Page 3 of 12 abundantly available renewable natural source for highly for graphene-based transparent conductive electrodes crystalline nanolayers to create light. That is similar (TCEs) [20–23]. to research into the Destriau effect. French physicist This review, a roadmap of CM and device technologies, Georges Destriau named the light “Light of Losev” after presents CM as an alternative material with the predic- Russian radio frequency (RF) technician Oleg Losev and tion of high performance. It should be noted that there his work of inducing the electroluminescence (EL) in is an attempt to exhaustively review and cover the entire 1927 using silicon carbide (SiC) crystals [18]. The road - CM work. Also, it should be noted that although there map of the proposed process from waste materials to a are several implementations of CM into, for example, solid source to the advanced devices is defined. The syn - GaN-based devices, the discussion in this review focuses thesis of high-quality crystal-based CM is introduced to solely on CM as an emitter device or a component of facilitate such a complicated growth technique. The most optoelectronic devices using a solid source from recy- relevant directions for further development of light emit- cled CM. The review is represented: Section 1 introduces ter structures include the use of the solid source in pulse the light emitters history for two reasons: (I) to include laser deposition (PLD) based on the optimizing growth the early pioneers in an effort to form an understand - conditions of semiconducting with high-quality n/p- ing of the invention of light emitters, (II) to acknowledge doped crystal diamond. With the diamond’s outstanding that while various aspects of light emitters are taken for properties, it is ‘the ultimate engineering material’ [19]. granted, the produce of indirect to direct gap semicon- A new semiconductor CM perspective, along with ductors can be practically effective. ultra-wide bandgap (UWBG) semiconductors, is essen- Notably, indirect gap could be converted into a direct tial. CM can provide two basic advantages over such as band gap as described by the breakthrough in Ref. [24] GaN, namely a high value of E and simplicity of epitaxial of a direct bandgap silicon-based material for opti- thin-film growth and bulk wafer production. However, cal telecommunications [24]. It is critical to address the there are few intensive publications on CM for opto- nature of the material and the simplified techniques into electronic devices compared to (Al, Ga)N compounds, its implementation to meta-photonics-heterostructure, as GaN-based devices are pioneering the markets. Fig- lasers, and holographic displays. After the introduction ure 2 indicates the recognition of the implementation of in Section 1, Section 2 illustrates the basic physical prop- CM for ultraviolet emission from a p-n junction. Also, erties of carbon-based materials (CM) growth. Section 3 for the high thermal conductivity, CM is targeted to be provides the epitaxial thin-film growth technologies of incorporated with GaN devices, such as ultraviolet UV- CM. In Section 4, the selected device-processing technol- LEDs with a vertically oriented graphene nano-wall ogies are discussed with the development history of CM. buffer layer and in the tunnel junction LED device design Section 5 introduces the antielectron process theory for Fig. 2 The role of carbon-based materials (CM) shows for either active or passive devices: a diamond growth on Si N [21], and b the diamond 3 4 diode structure. Reproduced with permission [22]. Copyright 2003, Elsevier Publishing Abbas AAPPS Bulletin (2023) 33:4 Page 4 of 12 the direct conversion towards light, and Section 6 pro- electrodes, current spreading layers, and Schottky diodes vides a conclusion and a prospective direction. [38]. The diamond band structure with the principal energy gaps of this band structure and theoretical and experimental values for the location of the conduction 2 Physical properties of carbon‑based materials band minimum and the principal band gaps of the dia- (CM) growth mond are represented in Ref [39], and the calculation of The outstanding properties of CMs, such as electrical, the energy bands is convergent to − 0.003 Ry. The lattice optical, mechanical, and magnetic, have attracted sub- constant (a) was taken to be 3.57 A [39]. stantial consideration. References [25, 26] summarize the relevant material properties for SiC, GaN, and diamond, including the breakdown field, thermal conductivity, drift 2.3 Electric field breakdown velocity, and electron mobility. The authors give a good The diamond leads ahead of other materials is due to indication of the diamond advantages over its competi- such as its high dielectric breakdown strength. Break- tors in the semiconductor field. The increase in E will down field E (MV/cm) values are 0.3 Si, 3 SiC, 5 GaN, cause an enhancement of electric breakdown field to be br and 5–10 diamond, as shown in Table 1 [38, 40–42]. In higher than Si [27, 28]. Therefore, the selected CM has a Ref [43], a summary of SiC, and GaN relevant material clear direction, along with the proposed growth methods properties is presented. Semiconductors for example and designs later introduced. GaN, and diamond are projected to dominate the opto- electronic technology. An intrinsic breakdown in semi- 2.1 P olymorph: carbon‑based atom arrangements conductors outcomes from such ionization impact. In and bonding physics contrast, extrinsic breakdown relies on the crystalline CMs are an extensive family of carbon allotropes con- status [38]. The diamond shows the highest predicted sisting of 0-D quantum dots, 2D graphene, and 3D nan- breakdown field (E ), as presented in Table 1 [38, 40, 41]. br odiamonds and nanohorns [29–31]. All the beneficial properties for the a-C: H arise from the sp component of their bonding, and these carbons are often diamond- 2.4 Electron mobility like carbon (DLC). DLDs are considered by the ternary 2 3 The 80 meV exciton binding energy is allowed room- diagram based on hydrogen content and sp /sp bonding temperature (RT) UV emission for diodes [44, 45]. How- ratio as in [32]. Reference [32] presents the diagram of the ever, electron mobility μe ( cm /vs) values are 1500 Si, 800 DLC structure. However, amorphous carbon a-C, hydro- SiC, 900 GaN, and 2200 diamond [38, 40, 41]. In Ref [46], genated amorphous carbon a-C: H, tetrahedral carbon the RT electron and hole mobility is proportional to the ta-C, and hydrogenated tetrahedral amorphous carbon thermal conductivity [46, 47]. The diamond shows the ta-C: H are considered as DLC [32], and DLC structure 3 2 highest predicted electron mobility μe (cm /vs) of any has diamond (sp -bond) and graphite (sp -bond) [32]. semiconductor. The control of film properties can be conducted by introducing constituents other than H or C. In a broad sense, DLC films can include films comprising vari - 2.5 Saturation velocity ous metals, Si, and/or nitrogen [32–35]. a-C DLC, the 3 2 The high values of saturation carrier velocity and the mixture of tetrahedral (sp ) diamond and trigonal (sp ) breakdown field, Baliga’s figure of merit (BFOM) indi - graphite [36, 37]. Also considered are CMs differences cates that has 10 times higher value than GaN [48]. The between diamond, graphite, and DLC in terms of hydro- saturation of charge carrier velocity is at high fields [38]. gen%, Sp %, and bandgap (eV). The saturation velocity v in Table 1 is 2.2 Band structure E values above GaN (3.4 eV) are identified as UWBG Table 1 (a) The breakdown field (E ) of diamond, 4H-Sic, and g br semiconductors. AlGaN with high Al content, and dia- GaN semiconductor. (b) The experimental values of v [38, 40, 41] mond are as UWBG. The bandgap determines physical (a) properties; therefore, bandgap engineering is one of the –1 E5–10 MVcm br (Diamond) directions to explore novel semiconductors. A prom- –1 E3 MVcm br (4H-SiC) ising semiconductor should acquire unsimilar band- –1 E5 MVcm br (GaN) gaps energy (E ) than the materials in the market. As (b) described in this article, the wide-bandgap diamond is 7 −1 v 0.85 − 1.2 × 10 cms s (hole ) for an optoelectronic device in both active, for exam- 7 -1 v 1.5 − 2.7 × 10 cms s (electron) ple, laser diodes (LDs), and passive devices, for example, A bbas AAPPS Bulletin (2023) 33:4 Page 5 of 12 The dopants introduced in diamond as Table 2. For p/n- 8Eopt (1) vs = tanh (Eopt/2KT) doping types, CMs are prepared by various techniques, 3πm∗ such as CVD and PLD. To attain final devices, one needs where E is the energy of (k = 0) optical phonon and m* to control the doping of CM by CVD and ion implan- opt is the effective mass of the charge carriers. The high opti - tation. The n-type with five valence electrons dopants is cal phonon energies thus tend to give a high saturation phosphorous. The p-type with three valence electrons carrier velocity. The highest optical phonon energy E = dopants is boron. Doping may occur by flowing the gas opt 160 meV is for diamond [40]. The experimental values of over the crystalline material. Therefore, the potential 7 −1 v have been indicated as 0.85 − 1.2 × 10 cms and v barriers design of the surface or at the semiconductor s s 7 −1 = 1.5 − 2.7 × 10 cms for hole and electron. However, and a metal contact interface or two semiconductors is diamond has a real advantage in that its saturation veloc- achievable [49]. ity is reached in fields of ~ 10 kV/cm, whereas for SiC, Table 2 represents p-type and n-type dopability with the velocity saturates at fields close to its practical electri - their associated ionization energies [50]. For LDs, p/n- cal breakdown strength. Such high fields can be very dif - types of doping are required, along with high substrate ficult to approach in devices [ 38]. quality [50]. However, the focus of this article is on the recycled CM solid source for diamond, and its growth 2.6 Doping types techniques, as the highest known thermal conductivity There are techniques for converting diamond to be is in the diamond. That is particularly important because conducive through doping diamond materials. The it addresses heat removal in power electronics and opto- undoped and non-conductive diamond with resistivi- electronics applications’ device operation. ties is in the order of 10 ohm.cm. The converting of the insulating diamond to a conductor is through such as rapid thermal annealing (RTA) with N flow. In 2.6.1 n‑type doping terms of CM growth, the initial development was the The fabrication of n-doping region can be through using single-crystal realization. The second development is phosphorus [51, 52] (activation energy 0.6 eV), nitro- doping realization. Doping of the diamond layers are gen [52, 53] (1.6–1.7 eV), and sulfur [52, 54]. However, conducted using the gas flow doping during plasma- the nanostructure fabrication is a factor in introducing enhanced CVD growth or gas doping flow during the the conductivity, initiating sp and mid-gap states [51– post-annealing process. 54]. Koizumi et al. reported obtaining “n-type diamond The mass production demand, low-defect, single-crys - employing diamond substrates” [55]. Low n-type dopants tal diamond substrates has decreased device concept activation in diamond causes the challenging in obtaining realization. Previously, several techniques established conduction band masses [56]. 5 −2 to enable low defects (< 10 cm ) substrates and new synthesis approaches for substrates mass production. 2.6.2 p‑type doping Single-crystal diamond with scales greater than 1 × The boron doped diamond, a low charge carrier of the 1 cm can be fabricated by high-growth-rate CVD on 0.37 eV activation energy, produces a p-type. The heavily (100) crystal orientation; these are commercialized [44]. boron-doped CVD diamond introduces superconducting Table 2 (a) The material properties between major semiconductors and diamond. (b) The common dopants in diamond with activation energy [50] (a) AlGaN/AlN β‑ Ga O Diamond 2 3 p‑ type doping Magnesium-Poor No/potential acceptor (Magnesium, Boron-Good zinc, beryllium) n‑ type doping Silicon-Moderate (Silicon, Germanium, Tin)-Good (Nitrogen, Phosphorous, sulfur)- Moderate (b) Type of doping Element Activation Energy (eV) n‑ type doping Nitrogen, Phosphorous (1.6-1.7), 0.6 p‑ type doping Boron 0.37 Abbas AAPPS Bulletin (2023) 33:4 Page 6 of 12 properties [57, 58]. Boron introduces mid-gap states for 3 Growth of carbon‑based materials (CM) conductivity and electron-transfer improvement [59, 60]. 3.1 UV of p‑n junction CM The diamond E (5.5 eV) at 225 nm. That opens the win - 2.7 Figure of merit dow for the diamond to be a promising and attractive Semiconductor suitability for specific applications is candidate for optoelectronic since it allows the deep assessed by merit (FOMs) device figures. Baliga’s FOM ultraviolet (DUV) emitters. Even though the indirect (BFOM) and Johnson’s FOM (JFOM). BFOM is employed band gap diamond, photoluminescence (PL) showed UV for evaluation semiconductor capability, and diamond [12]. shows high BFOM. For the high saturation carrier veloc- Table 3 shows the diamond, graphite, and DLC of ity and high breakdown field, Baliga’s BFOM for dia - synthesized CM into the selected phase. Moreover, mond is 10 times higher than GaN [48]. Previously, the growing mono- or hetero-crystal structures of differ - demonstration of high power is on the single crystalline ent colors is challenging, and semiconductor materi- diamond [48, 61–64]. The BFOM is based on the theory als with different crystal structures are needed to span that the activated doped impurities are at RT; however, in the entire spectra. Red emission requires a cubic zinc diamond, deeper impurity levels lead to the low dielec- blende structure, while higher energy wavelengths like tric constant. Consequently, the RT carrier activity is less green and blue require a hexagonal wurtzite crystal than 10% [65]. Various semiconductors (normalized to structure [66]. The crystal structures should be selected silicon) figure of merit of Johnson (E . v /2π ) is 2540 in alignment with the targeted spectrum and device br sat for the C-Diamond, and the figure of merit of Baliga ( E designs. br ε . μ ) is 3770 for the C-Diamond [48, 64, 65]. On the other hand, diamond possess many lumi- r e nescence centers throughout the UV, visible, and 2.8 Thermal conductivity near-IR [11]. As for silicon to CM crystal structures, One of the important parameters is thermal conductivity, the Ge Si , with its recent breakthrough, is capable x 1-x which impacts the performance of high power electronic of emitting light; thus, the same concept should be and optoelectronic devices by limiting the dissipation applied to CM as ultimate semiconductors. The struc- capacity of the heat generated. Diamond has a higher ture of graphite is sheets, which tend to slide, the dia- thermal conductivity compared to such as GaN. Ther - mond structure is atoms with connections in three mal conductivity is 253–319 AlGaN/AlN, 4.9 β-Ga O , directions. Important key achievements are (1) the 2 3 −1 −1 and 2290–3450 (W m K ) diamond. The major aspect production of a direct band gap silicon-based mate- is avoiding the low thermal conductivity to enhance the rial at optical telecommunications; and (2) connect- device reliability. However, the diamond shows the high- ing the findings of the silicon-based devices that emits est thermal conductivity value. light, as established with CM light-emitting structures Table 3 Carbon-based materials (CM): diamond, graphite, and DLC synthesize carbon-based materials into the selected phase [19, 67] A bbas AAPPS Bulletin (2023) 33:4 Page 7 of 12 3.2 The methods of CM growth [11]. The diamond, graphite, and DLC, the layout dif- Whatever the methods of CM growth, the reactor cham- ference with the same atoms explains the properties ber condition should involve the pyrolysis furnace for the variances: steam pyrolysis of hydrocarbons. Figure 3 shows meth- ods of PLD and CVD in terms of the carbon-based source • Conduction of current: graphite is conductive; dia- type [60, 72]. The CM can be used for the development mond is an insulator and requires doping to be con- of semiconductor applications such as power electronics, ductive. lasers, and sensors. The synthesis routes implementing • Conduction of heat: diamond is an outstanding con- solid, or gas sources have allowed the selected properties. ductor of heat; graphite is a moderate conductor of Importantly, the UV-LEDs based CMs has been realized heat. [12]. The solid source from recycled CM is supplied by the production of oil, crude, and coal combustion of coal- DLC films are in demand for various applications due fired power plants [14, 15]. This raw waste product com - to their properties [32, 68, 69]. DLCs are fabricated by prises a carbon content [16, 17]. In Fig. 4, a roadmap is deposition conditions, and depending on the ratio of 3 2 defined of the proposed process from waste materials of sp, sp and hydrogen content, the DLC properties are carbon-rich materials as a solid source to the advanced changed [70, 71]. DLC material characteristics range devices. from graphite-like to diamond-like to polymer-like. Fig. 3 The considered sources of carbon-rich materials: a CVD, either solid source or gases; b PLD [73] Fig. 4 Method of growing a transparent and conductive DLC thin film which can be employed as an alternative to the conventional TCO with comparable performance to recycled carbon as a waste material [73] Abbas AAPPS Bulletin (2023) 33:4 Page 8 of 12 This review presents research on the possibility of the advantage of a higher melting point and much lower alternative techniques and resources to produce carbon incorporation of gases into its crystal structure [82]. films for the mass production. Therefore, we consider the implementation advantage of the coal fly ash (CFA) 3.6 Diamond growth initiation and future potential source, which is waste materials produced using a fuel in implementation power plants [74]. Using carbon as a catalyst and precur- Diamond semiconductors, including the type of diamond sor for CM by the CVD or as a solid source for the PLD a-C and their alloys, have been under active investigation method is critical. The method has been proven effective and development. That has resulted in the maturing of in developing a large-scale production [75]. The CM syn - the diamond system to be adopted into diamond-based thesis is still costly considering their raw materials, such optoelectronic devices. Diamond technology is imple- as a high purity graphite target (99.999%) [76]. Moreover, mented in a wide range of devices, including visible proposed techniques have been introduced to employ fly and UV-LEDs, photodetectors (PDs), and laser diodes ash, thus decreasing the waste in landfills and preventing (LDs). Device designs of such p-type growth methods environmental challenges [77–80]. with only the holes are needed due to the deficiency in the n-type dopant [38]. That is a completely opposite system than (In, Al) GaN-based device system. In 1991, 3.3 C VD with conditions of adjusting pressure Nakamura developed the p-type GaN using thermal and temperature annealing and discovered a mechanism of hydrogen pas- In 1962, Eversole [72] realized that deposition of CMs sivation with p-doping high enough for LEDs. Moreover, on a substrate from a hydrocarbon gas or gas mixture in GaN-based devices, it is difficult for the p-type con - including CO by means of CVD. E and a are modified 2 g tact layer to reach ohmic as n-type because of the chal- by changing the composition within such as the group lenge of reaching a high doping deep level of Mg acceptor III-V semiconductors and within the hexagonal III- on p-type GaN. Addressing the p-type issue led to GaN nitrides. Accordingly, different light colors may be pro - being directed toward several new commercial products duced. However, the wavelength is determined by the with the potential to make revolutionary high-efficiency laser crystal in diode-pumped solid state (DPSS) lasers. devices. In 1996, Nichia Corp. commercialized white For GaN-based devices, the indium concentration varies LED using InGaN DH blue LED [83]. On the other hand, in order to produce light emitters with the selected emis- the diamond potential is based on the simplified pro - sion wavelengths. That is a similar functionality to GaAs- posed growth techniques besides the diamond’s ultimate based devices. For example, to fabricate LED of different properties that requires the development of fabrication colors within one device, semiconductors with different methods. crystal structures are needed; thus, red LED requires a Intrinsic design factors are Structure ➔ Properties ➔ cubic zinc blende structure while higher energy wave- Processing (synthesis, growth) ➔ Performance ➔ Char- lengths like green require a hexagonal wurtzite crystal acterization ➔ Application are represented for mapping structure [66]. the necessary elements to address the issues with p/n type growth methods, as well as the issues with material properties. CM research is moving toward changing the 3.4 Epitaxial g rowth modes lifespan and functionality of many future optoelectronic The thin film growth modes are the Volmer-Weber devices if doped with a controlled level of impurity based mode (island), the Frank-van der Merwe mode (layer- on the concept of life cycles introduced in this research. by-layer), and the Stranski-Krastanov mode (layer plus The issues were covered that have long prevented the CM island). Moreover, (I) three-dimensional (3D) islands are devices progress and represent the overcome in utilizing considered the island mode growth; (II) the adatoms of the recycled CM supplied by the production of oil, crude, monolayers for two demotions growth on the surface is and coal combustion of coal-fired power plants [14, 15]. considered layer-by-layer mode growth; and (III) layer plus island mode growth forms [5, 73, 81]. 4 Device‑processing technologies 4.1 Light‑emitting diamond‑based materials 3.5 Substr ate selection for diamond growth Issues with GaN-based devices pose major challenges Silicon substrate and Sapphire substrates with a high due to their physical limits at all wavelengths. In con- melting point, high availability, and high thermal conduc- trast, the potential of the existing technologies to pro- tivity are employed for the fabrication of the GaN-based duce diamond p-n structures, such as CVD epitaxy, and blue LEDs. Compared to other substrates often used for various modifications of liquid-phase epitaxy, is covered. diamond heteroepitaxy, such as Ni or Pt, sapphire offers A bbas AAPPS Bulletin (2023) 33:4 Page 9 of 12 Alternatively, the diamond development for light emitters device-quality GaN epitaxial layers advancement, het- was the result of the homo-junction device emitting light erostructures, and p-type doping. On the other hand, in 1994 as diamond-based materials for light-emitting the diamond-based light-emitting structure is similar to diodes. In addition, Burchard and co-authors reported a that of advanced GaN-based light-emitters. In addition, method of fabricating practical devices with a working light emitter aspects are taken for granted as the indirect mechanism of obtaining the laser emission for the first bandgap semiconductors are un-ability to generate emis- time [11]. There is a need for the continued progress of sion [24]. diamond-based light emitters for efficient results in the revolution of illumination by utilizing materials with 4.4 Meta‑photonics‑heterostructure for lasers abundant resources. and holographic displays The CM in the form of passive or active components is 4.2 C arbon‑based semiconductors for light emitters part of the field of meta-surface holography. The meta- CM intrinsic properties create the enhancement for surfaces capability the light propagation control through growing market beyond scope of Si technology. In Fig. 5, the scattering behavior design of the high spatial resolu- Wang et al. described devices of ultraviolet emission tion ultrathin planar elements, thus making them suitable from heteroepitaxial diamond film [22], and Koizumi for holographic beam-shaping elements. The hologra - et al. described “UV-LED by a diamond p-n junction” [11, phy-based techniques have been used to achieve three- 12, 84]. The carrier concentration of Boron-doped and dimensional (3D) displays [85]. Butt et al. realized binary phosphorous-doped layers was approximately 1.5 × 10 amplitude holography by the scattering of carbon nano- 17 −3 and 2.2 × 10 cm , respectively [22]. Enhancing the tubes. For meta-surface holography, materials with high emission productivity for the UV light emitters requires refractive indexes are implemented, such as Ge, GaAs, concentration increment, and reduction in the impurity. TiO , and diamond [85]. 4.3 The establishment of CM in the form of active devices 5 From the theory of electrons and holes (ADs) and passive devices (PDs) to positrons (anti‑electrons) Metal-semiconductor contacts, and growth techniques One of the fundamental concepts in semiconductor is development allow for further realization. We outline converting the electrons process in an electrical current the factors of such as junctions and contacts that ena- for creating emission. Positron theory and Antielec- bled LD-based lighting breakthroughs through the ini- tron process? The antielectron process is for converting tiation of the growth of diamond LDs. The awarded the electrical current directly into light towards new Physics Nobel Prize is a result of many factors including fields of research for semiconductor. A positron is a + + + Fig. 5 Diagram of the fabricated diamond LEDs: a p -i-p ; b M -i -p (with metallization). Reproduced with permission [11], Copyright 1994, Elsevier Publishing Abbas AAPPS Bulletin (2023) 33:4 Page 10 of 12 subatomic particle with an equal electron mass. While reported in Ref. [89]; this is proposed for electrical injec- numerically equal, it is a positively charged particle. tion of the LD structure as shown in Fig. 6 [89–93]. The existence of the antiparticle of the electron, the positron, was predicted by Dirac in 1928, and its first 6 Conclusion and future work experimental observation came in 1932 by Carl Ander- The historical development of CM synthesis is son [86, 87]. described to shape the future direction of optoelec- The process of the antiparticle of the electron (positron) tronic devices. Three main threads are as follows: (1) and the antiparticle of holes (the absence of positron) is The overall goal is to provide a scientific basis for CVD realized but not yet implemented into the semiconductor and PLD CM synthesis that incorporates the solid industry. A positron is an anti-electron as an antiparticle source from recycled carbon-rich fly ash. (2) Carbon- and an actual particle. On the other hand, a hole is just based semiconducting is investigated for light emitters the lack of an electron, not an anti-particle or a particle. toward overcoming shortcomings related to fundamen- u Th s, the absence and lack of positron should be anti- tal material properties, which is the deficiency in the positron. If the device is injected with the current of a n-type dopant. (3) Anti-electron process for creating positron, how will this impact the device performance? light-emitters is introduced. Moreover, CM, an out- Notably, there is an opportunity to create low emittance standing heat conductor, is crucial materials being used muon beams by the collisions of electron positron [88]. in optoelectronics where thermal management is chal- The system called “Muonic Electromagnetic Generator” lenging. Thus, the use of diamond in optoelectronics is relates generally to the generation of power, and more as a passive component and high-power active device. particularly to an apparatus and a method for the gen- However, based on the current CM devices, the indi- eration of electricity from the decay of muons created in cation is that the technology is still immature, and so the upper atmosphere from cosmic particles called pions. much effort is required to introduce CM into market - Free electrons and positrons are frequently sourced from places with its highest potential. The continued efforts thermionic cathode ray tubes. on the selected CM sources as an inexpensive and On a smaller scale and with minor effort, the positrons abundantly available natural source for a highly crystal- were produced by means of a setup of laser-driven par- line nanolayer toward device manufacturing will lead to ticle acceleration for electron and positron generation as technological advancement. Fig. 6 InGaN-based light emitter of the epitaxial layers. Reproduced with permission [92], Copyright 2016, AIP Publishing; the electric current exists whenever the charges move, and the current-injected device is based on “positron electricity” and “anti-electron electricity.” The positrons are the same as electrons for carrying a charge [89, 90, 92, 93] A bbas AAPPS Bulletin (2023) 33:4 Page 11 of 12 Acknowledgements2021- 06- russi an- parli ament- adopts- law- aimed- at- limit ing- green house- Not applicable. gasses, 2022) 16. N.A. Salah, Method of Forming Carbon Nanotubes from Carbon-Rich Fly Ash. Author’s contributions Appl. N.: 13/247, 588, US Patent (2011) The author read and approved the final manuscript as this review is written by 17. A. Yasui et al., Synthesis of Carbon Nanotubes on Fly Ashes by Chemical the single author whose name is given in the article. 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Journal
AAPPS Bulletin – Springer Journals
Published: Jan 27, 2023
Keywords: CM growth technology; Crystal growth (bulk and thin films); Meta-photonics-heterostructure; CM lasers; Anti-electron