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Practical parameters for assessing starch digestion and feeding value of steam-flaked corn in finishing diets for feedlot cattle

Practical parameters for assessing starch digestion and feeding value of steam-flaked corn in... JOURNAL OF APPLIED ANIMAL RESEARCH 2023, VOL. 51, NO. 1, 24–30 https://doi.org/10.1080/09712119.2022.2149537 Practical parameters for assessing starch digestion and feeding value of steam-flaked corn in finishing diets for feedlot cattle a a b c Manuel Alejandro Franco-Hernández , Luis Corona , Alejandro Plascencia and Richard Avery Zinn a b Department of Animal Nutrition and Biochemistry, Veterinary School, University National Autonomous of Mexico, Mexico City, Mexico; Institute for Research in Veterinary Sciences, University Autonomous of Baja California, Mexicali, México; Department of Animal Science, University of California, Davis, CA, USA ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY Received 20 April 2020 Six Holstein steers (153 kg ± 11) with cannulas in the rumen and proximal duodenum were used in a 6 × 6 Accepted 15 November 2022 Latin square design experiment to compare flake density (FD, kg/L), flake thickness (FT, mm), amyloglucosidase reactivity (AGR, % DM) and faecal starch (FS, % DM) as predictors of ruminal (RSD, KEYWORDS %) and total tract (TSD, %) starch digestion. Dietary treatments consisted of a finishing diet containing Corn; starch; processing; 77% corn. The six corn processing treatments consisted of dry-rolled corn (DRC) with a density of digestion; cattle 0.54 kg/L, and steam-flaked corn (SFC) processed to obtain densities of 0.46, 0.41, 0.36, 0.31 and 0.26 kg/L. Compared with DRC, steam flaking enhanced postruminal (34.2%, P < 0.01) and TSD (7.8%, 2 2 P < 0.01). Measures of FS were the best single predictor of both ruminal (r = 0.97) and TSD (r = 0.98). Whereas AGR was a good predictor of RSD (r = 0.94), it was less effective than FS for estimation of TSD (r = 0.91). We conclude that compared with dry rolling, stream flaking markedly enhances the feeding value of corn. To evaluate the consistency of the flaking process, we recommend in addition to the determinations of FD, measurements of FT, starch enzymatic reactivity and FS are useful indicators. 1. Introduction comparative reliability as predictors of ruminal (RSD, %) and total TSD (%). Flake density (FD) is generally considered one of the most important quality control measures in the steam flaking process (Zinn et al. 2002; Sindt et al. 2006a). In commercial prac- 2. Material and methods tice, corn is typically flaked to a bulk density of between Dietary treatments and corn processing 0.31 kg/L (24 lb/ bu) and 0.40 kg/L (31 lb/bu; Schwandt et al., 2006b). Optimal FD is a consideration of enhancements in Six dietary treatments consisted of a basal finishing diet contain- ruminal and total tract digestion, flake production rate (T/h), ing 77% corn grain (DM basis) as dry-rolled (DR) with a density of flake durability and processing cost (Owens and Zinn 2005). 0.54 kg/L or 42 lb/bu (dry-rolled corn (DRC)) or steam-flaked to Decreasing FD increases in a linear fashion the rate of in vitro obtain densities of 0.46 (SFC46), 0.41 (SFC41), 0.36 (SFC36), and in vivo ruminal digestion (Zinn 1990a; Hales et al. 2010; 0.31 (SFC31) and 0.26 kg/L (36, 32, 28, 24 and 20 lb/bu). Schwandt et al. 2016b), as well as postruminal and total tract Density measures were determined (Weight Per Bushel starch digestion (TSD) (Zinn 1990a). There is an optimal FD at Tester, Mill & Elevatory Supply Co., Kansas City, MO) on pro- which starch digestion approaches 100%. Reducing FD cessed grain obtained as it exited directly beneath the rolls. beyond 0.36 kg/L may increase starch gelatinization, affording Experimental diets are shown in Table 1. Yellow corn used a more durable flake, but otherwise, may not further enhance was a commercial blend of US #2 dent. DR corn was prepared total tract digestion, and perhaps lead to decreased feeding by passing whole corn through rollers (46 × 61 cm rolls, 5.5 cor- value (Zinn 1990a; Domby et al. 2014). Considering the wide rugations/cm; Memco, Mills Rolls, Mill Engineering & Machinery variation in FD observed between steam flakers and feedlots, Co., Oklahoma, CA) that had been adjusted so that kernels were and the wide availability of analytical procedures to determine broken to a density of 0.54 kg/L. Steam-flaked corn (SFC) was starch availability at the feed mill (Schwandt et al. 2016a), it is prepared as follows: A chest situated directly above the necessary to simultaneously evaluate the practicality of rollers (46 × 61 cm rolls, 5.5 corrugations/cm; Memco, Mills various measures for assessing consistency and process optim- Rolls, Mill Engineering & Machinery Co., Oklahoma, CA) was ization. This study was conducted to test a wide range of corn filled to capacity (440 kg) with whole corn and brought to a flake densities (FD, kg/L) and associated changes in flake thick- constant temperature (102°C) at atmospheric pressure using ness (FT, mm), amyloglucosidase reactive starch (AGR, % DM) steam (boiler pressure 4.218 kg/cm or 0.0414 kPa). The corn and faecal starch (FS, % DM) in order to further assess their was steamed for 20 min before starting the rollers, without CONTACT Luis Corona gochi@unam.mx Department of Animal Nutrition and Biochemistry, Veterinary School, University National Autonomous of Mexico, Mexico City 4510, Mexico © 2023 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, dis- tribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. JOURNAL OF APPLIED ANIMAL RESEARCH 25 Table 1. Composition of diets fed for steers. follows: Samples were first oven-dried at 70°C and then Treatments ground in a laboratory mill (Micro-Mill, Bell-Arts Products, DRC SFC Pequannock, N J). Samples were then oven-dried at 105°C Ingredients, (% of DM) until constant weight and stored in sealed glass jars. Alfalfa hay 5.00 5.00 Sudan hay 5.00 5.00 SFC – 77.0 Sample analysis and calculations DRC 77.0 – Cane molasses 6.0 6.0 FT was determined according to Zinn (1990a), and particle size Yellow grease 3.50 3.50 distribution of DR and SF corn according to ASAE (Baker and Limestone 1.50 1.50 Magnesium oxide 0.20 0.20 Herman 2002). AGR (%) was determined according to Zinn Urea 1.15 1.15 (1990a), with incubation time extended to 4 h. Enzymatic reac- Trace mineral salt 0.35 0.35 tive starch (RS) was determined as described by Rodríguez et al. Chromic oxide 0.30 0.30 (2001) as follows: (1) samples of the test grain were ground to Corn was processed as dry-rolled (DR) with a density of 0.54 kg/L (42 lb/bu), or as steam-flaked (SF) to obtain densities of 0.46, 0.41, 0.36, 0.31 and 0.26 kg/L pass through a 20 mesh screen; (2) approximately 0.15 g of the (36, 32, 28, 24 and 20 lb/bu). ground sample was placed in a 20 mL culture tube along with 2 Trace mineral salt contained: 0.052% KI; 0.68% CoSO ; 1.04%CuSO ; 1.07% 4 4 stainless steel bearing (22 mm diam); (3) 20 mL of a phosphate MnSO ; 1.24% ZnO ; 3.57% FeSO ; and 92.96% NaCl. 4 4 4 buffer-enzyme solution (8.71 g potassium phosphate, 0.65 g sodium carbonate, 1.75 g calcium carbonate, 0.55 mg amylo- prior tempering agent . Approximately 440 kg of the initial glucosidase, 8 mg alpha-amylase, 8 mg pancreatin, 2 mg lytic steam-processed grain that exited the rolls during warm-up enzyme, and 2 mg protease in 1 L water) plus a drop of was not fed to steers on this study. Tension of the rollers was toluene was added to each tube; (4) tubes were mixed and adjusted to provide the indicated FD (0.46, 0.41, 0.36, 0.31 then incubated in a 39°C in a shaking water bath for 6 h; (5) and 0.26 kg/L, in avoirdupois units these are 36, 32, 28, 24 tubes were removed from the water bath, 2 mL zinc sulphate and 20 pounds per bushel). Retention time of grain in the was added and tubes were allowed to cool in an ice bath for steam chamber was approximately 20 min. The SFC was 10 min before proceeding with glucose analysis (Zinn 1990b). allowed to air-dry (5 d) before use in diet preparation. Insoluble reactive starch (IRS) was calculated as: IRS = (RS − AGR)/6, where 6 represents the number of hours of the in vitro incubation. Insoluble starch digestion in the rumen (ISD, Metabolism trial %) was calculated as: ISD = (100 − AGR) × [IRS/(IRS + 0.05)], Animals and sampling where 0.05 is an estimate of the passage rate (fraction per All procedures involving animal care and management were in hour) of grain from the rumen. Predicted ruminal starch diges- accordance with and approved by the University of California, tion (PRSD, %) was calculated as: PRSD = 1.32 (AGR) + 0.93 Davis Animal Use and Care Committee. (ISD)(Rodríguez et al. 2001). Six Holstein steers (153 ± 11 kg) with cannulas in the rumen Feed, duodenal and faecal samples were subject to the fol- and proximal duodenum (Zinn and Plascencia 1993) were used lowing analysis: dry matter (oven drying at 105°C until no in a 6 × 6 Latin square experiment design to examine the effect further weight loss; method 930.15; AOAC 2000); chromic of corn FD on site and extent of digestion. Steers were housed oxide (Hill and Anderson 1958) and starch (Zinn 1990b). The in individual pens (3.9 m ) in an indoor facility, with a concrete NE value of processed corn treatments was calculated floor covered with a neoprene mat, automatic waterers and according to Zinn et al. (2002): Corn NE , Mcal/kg = −0.75 + individual feed bunks. All steers received ad libitum access to 0.032 TSD, where TSD is the determined total TSD (%) for the basal diet (Table 1) for 14 days before the initiation of the each treatment. trial. The basal diet was fed in two equal proportions at 0800 and 2000h daily. Chromic oxide (3.0 g/kg of diet air-dry basis) Statistical analyses was used as an indigestible marker to estimate nutrient flow and digestibility. Chromic oxide was premixed with minor Statistical relationships (total starch digestion vs. FS; FT vs FD; ingredients (urea and mineral supplement composed by lime- FD vs. PRSD; PRSD vs. observed ruminal digestion of starch; stone and trace mineral salt) before inclusion in complete rumen starch digestion vs FD and total starch digestion vs. mixed diets. To avoid feed refusals, DM intake was restricted FD) were determined using regression analysis (Statistix, to 2.25% of live weight (90% of observed DM intake during Version 10.0, Analytical Software, Tallahassee, FL). The treat- the 14-d preliminary period before start of the trial). Experimen- ment effects on characteristics of digestion were analysed as tal periods consisted of 14 days, with 10 days for dietary treat- a 6 × 6 Latin square design using the (Statistix, Version 10.0, ment adjustment and 4 days for sample collection. During the Analytical Software, Tallahassee, FL). The fixed effect was treat- collection period, duodenal and faecal samples were taken ment and random effects were steer and period. The statistical from all steers, twice daily as follows: d 1, 0750 and 1350 h; d model for the trial was as follows: 2, 0900 and 1500 h; d 3, 1050 and 1650 h; and d 4, 1200 and Y = µ + S + P + T + E , where: Y is the response variable, ijk i j k ijk ijk 1800h. Individual samples consisted of approximately 500 mL µ is the common experimental effect, S is the steer effect (n = of duodenal chyme and 200 g (wet basis) of faecal material. 6), P is the period effect, T is the treatment effect and E is the j k ijk Feed, duodenal and faecal samples from each steer and residual error. Treatments effects on digestion and fermenta- within each collection period were prepared for analysis as tion variables were tested as follows: DRC vs SF corn 26 M. ALEJANDRO FRANCO-HERNÁNDEZ ET AL. Table 2. Characteristics of processed corn. averaged 70.1 and 74.1% for DRC and SFC, respectively. The a b DRC SFC in vitro estimate of ruminal starch digestion (RSD) was inversely Density, kg/L 0.54 0.46 0.41 0.36 0.31 0.26 associated (PRSD = −0.3842FD + 0.8788, r = 0.98; Figure 1) DM, % 91.35 93.64 92.48 91.77 91.30 93.25 with FD. As FD decreased from 0.46 to 0.26 kg/L, PRSD CP (N x 6.25), % DM 8.30 8.13 8.27 8.15 7.89 7.53 increased from 70.2 to 77.5%. It warrants noting that consistent Starch, % DM 73.67 78.80 75.16 75.27 79.19 79.73 NDF, % DM 6.56 7.13 7.69 7.80 8.08 6.90 relationships between FD and enzymatic starch digestion are Ash, % DM 1.30 1.50 1.41 1.31 1.23 0.90 more likely when measures are obtained from the same mill Amyloglucosidase reactivity (AGR) , % 10.04 13.03 13.16 20.38 27.97 34.14 operation. Numerous factors affect the degree of starch disrup- Insoluble starch digestibility (ISD) , % 60.10 57.18 58.50 54.20 48.35 43.35 PRSD , % 70.13 70.21 71.65 74.58 76.31 77.49 tion at the rolls for a given FD, including grain moisture, tem- Dry rolled corn (42 lb/bu). pering, steaming time and flaker dimensions (Zinn et al. Steam flaked corn (36, 32, 28, 24 and 20 lb/bu). 2002). In a 17-feedlot survey, Schwandt (2015) likewise AGR = Corn reactive to amyloglucosidase, soluble starch measurement. Corn was observed linear increases in enzymatic starch availability ground and passed through a mesh no. 20 before enzymatic digestion of 4 h. (Zinn 1990). (average 50.6%, range = 37.0–65.0%) with decreasing FD ISD = Insoluble starch digestibility, amylase reactive to insoluble starch. Corn (average 0.35 kg/L, range = 0.31–0.4 kg/L). However, as their was ground and passed through a mesh no. 20 before enzymatic digestion measures were taken across multiple feed mill operations, the of 6 h. (Rodríguez et al. 2001). Predicted ruminal starch digestion (1.32AGR +0.93ISD) (Rodríguez et al. 2001). relationship between FD and enzymatic starch availability was less closely associated (r = 0.31). In vitro enzymatic estimates of the percentage of RSD (Table treatments, and effect of FD (0.46, 0.41, 0.36, 0.31 and 0.26 kg/L) 2) explained 77% (P < 0.01) of the variation (Figure 2)in in vivo by means of polynomial contrasts (SAS, 2004 ). Comparisons measures. Previous studies (Rodríguez et al. 2001; Corona et al. were considered significant when the probability value was 2006) reported that in vitro RSD explained from 78 to 90% of ≤0.05, and as trend when the P value was >0.05 and ≤0.10. the variation of the in vivo RSD. Results and discussion Chemical composition of processed corn and in vitro Physical characteristics of processed corn enzymatic digestion Consistent with previous studies (Zinn et al. 2002), FT (mm) was Characteristics of processed corn treatments are shown in closely associated (r = 0.99) with FD (FD, kg/L): FD = 0.111 + Table 2. Starch concentration of SFC (77.6%) was slightly 0.116 FT. Whereas by convention, FD measures must be greater than the average value of 76%, and CP content was obtained directly as grain exits the rolls, the advantage of FT lower (8.5 vs 9.8%) than the tabular values reported by is that measures may be obtained at any time or place (for NASEM (2016). White and Pollack (1995) reported that example, from the feed bunk). Differences in the production measures for starch content of yellow corn range between 61 of fines (in FD measures) as well as manual technique in obtain- and 78%. Corn grain starch concentration is inversely with ing FT measures contribute to the variation in the relationship protein and oil concentration (Zinn et al. 2002). In vitro PRSD between FD and FT (Zinn 1990a). Figure 1. Relationship between PRSD (%) and FD (kg/L). JOURNAL OF APPLIED ANIMAL RESEARCH 27 Figure 2. Relationship between the PRSD (%) and observed ruminal digestion of starch (ORSD, %). Across corn processing treatments, a major proportion of Compared with DRC, steam flaking markedly enhanced corn particles were concentrated in ranges from <16 mm to (34.2%, P < 0.01) postruminal starch digestion. This enhance- ≥4 mm (32.05 and 89.6% for DRC and SFC, respectively). Geo- ment is due to processing effects on the physical properties metric mean particle size was 2981 and 5054 μm for DRC and of the grain particles entering the intestine (Theurer 1986; SFC, respectively (Table 3). Values for DRC are within the Zinn 1990b). Corn starch is encapsulated in a matrix of ranges reported by Schwandt et al. (2016b). protein (89% of corn protein is found in the starch matrix; Watson 2003), although the protein content is higher in corn hybrids with higher protein content (Corona et al. Characteristics of ruminal, postruminal, and total tract 2006), that acts as a primary barrier to starch hydrolysis. digestion Steam flaking disrupts this matrix, increases surface area for Treatment effects on ruminal, postruminal and total TSD are microbial or enzymatic attack together with gelatinization shown in Table 4. Steam flaking enhanced (11.3%, P < 0.01) of the starch granules (Matsushima 2006) and enhances the RSD compared with DRC. Measures of RSD obtained with exposure of starch to digestive processes postruminally. cattle cannulated in duodenum, fell within the previously Compared with DRC, steam flaking increased (7.8%, P < reported range of 80–85% for SFC (Huntington 1997; Zinn 0.01) total TSD. TSD for DRC was numerically greater (6%) et al. 2002) and 68–76%for DRC (Zinn 1990b; Zinn et al. 1995; than previously observed (Owens and Zinn 2005; Corona Corona et al. 2006; Plascencia and Jose Maria 2007). Due to et al. 2006). Whereas, starch digestion measures for SFC the disruption of the protein matrix that envelops the starch were consistent with previous studies (Zinn et al. 2002; in SFC, there is greater availability for ruminal starch fermenta- Owens and Zinn 2005; Corona et al. 2006). In a 9-trial tion (Zinn et al., 2002, Corona et al. 2006). summary, Huntington (1997) observed that steam flaking Table 3. Influence of processing on physical characteristics of corn. SFC kg/L Item DRC 0.46 0.41 0.36 0.31 0.26 Flake thickness, mm 2.93 2.63 2.21 1.75 1.23 Particle size (mm), % total 16 00 0 0 00 8–16 1.67 35.67 41.88 22.32 16.83 20.81 4–8 30.38 39.66 42.28 50.38 53.71 52.03 2–4 51.36 13.84 11.08 14.22 16.76 16.55 1–2 10.95 3.59 2.56 5.61 6.64 5.9 0.5–1 3.33 3.45 1.03 3.71 3.16 2.48 0.25–0.5 1.45 2.32 0.93 3.12 1.52 1.96 <0.25 0.85 1.47 0.23 0.65 1.38 0.27 Geometric mean particle size, μm 2981 5147 6386 4578 4381 4776 Surface area, cm /g 31 23 14 24 25 21 Particle/g 226 286 22 234 223 92 Geometric standard deviation 1.96 2.54 1.95 2.37 2.32 2.12 Steam flaked corn (36, 32, 28, 24 and 20 lb/bu). Dry rolled corn (42 lb/bu). 28 M. ALEJANDRO FRANCO-HERNÁNDEZ ET AL. Table 4. Effect of corn processing on site and extent of starch digestion in cattle. SFC Density b c Item DRC 0.46 0.41 0.36 0.31 0.26 SEM Proc LQ Intake, g/d DM 3389 3438 3430 3418 3406 3445 Starch 1803 1829 1825 1818 1812 1833 Starch digestion, % Ruminal 71.3 77.7 75.5 78.1 81.4 84.0 2.80 <0.01 0.02 0.23 Posruminal 68.8 84.0 89.1 93.4 97.3 98.0 3.3 <0.01 <0.01 0.38 Total tract 91.4 95.9 97.3 98.5 99.5 99.7 0.009 <0.01 <0.01 0.41 Steam flaked corn with densities of 0.46, 0.41, 0.36, 0.31, 0.26 kg/L (36, 32, 28, 24 and 20 lb/bu measurement taken on freshly flaked corn samples directly beneath the rolls). Dry rolled corn, density = 0.54 kg/L (42 lb/bu). Processing effect (DRC vs SFC). Starch digestion as a percentage of starch intake. Starch digestion as a percentage of starch entering the small intestine. increased total TSD 7.6% over that of dry rolling corn. As will improvement of 9%. This is in close agreement with 11.1% be discussed later, variations in responses to steam flaking on obtained for corn with an FD of 0.34 kg/L (Zinn 1990b). In the total TSD are largely accounted for by differences in degree of present study, as FD decreased from 0.46 to 0.26 kg/L estimates processing. of NE for SFC vs DRC was doubled (6.4–12.4%, respectively). The Total TSD was closely associated with FD: (TSD, %) = 96.5 + relative magnitude of the improvement will also depend on 2 2 30.2FD – 68.6FD (Figure 3, r = 0.99). Likewise, RSD was a changes brought about through the degree of processing of predictable function of FD: (RSD, %) = 92.5–36.6 FD (Figure DRC. Plascencia and Jose Maria (2007) observed that the total 4, r = 0.76). However, as mentioned previously, across mul- TSD of DRC increased from 93.9% to 96.6% as the density of tiple studies FD has been a less precise predictor of TSD DRC decreased from 0.51 to 0.45 kg/L. Corona et al. (2005) and RSD (Zinn et al. 2002; 64-trial summary; total TSD, % = observed that whereas total TSD was greater (7%) for finely 2 2 107–0.256 FD; r = 0.57 and RSD, % = 118.9–109.3 FD; r = ground (mean particle size < 2 mm, 72%) vs DRC (mean particle 0.22). Owens (2015) observed that TSD by feedlot cattle gen- size < 2 mm, 23%), the NE value of the corn based on growth erally exceeded 98% whenever FD was ≤0.39 kg/L. Notwith- performance was not improved (NE averaging 1.43 and 1.4 standing, decreasing FD from 0.39 to 0.31 kg/L may further Mcal/kg, respectively). enhance ADG, feed efficiency and dietary NE and NE Consistent with previous studies (Zinn et al. 2007; Owens m g (Zinn 1990b; Zinn et al. 2002). et al. 2016) FS (%, DM basis) was closely associated with both 2 2 There is a close association between TSD and the NE value of RSD (RSD, % = 85.9–2.88FS + 0.204FS , r = 0.97) and TSD 2 2 corn (r = 0.88; Zinn et al. 2002): NE (Mcal/kg) = −0.75 + 0.032 (TSD, % = 100.4–0.484FS, r = 0.98). Given the potential vari- TSD). Applying the above equation to the values observed in ation among feedmill operations in the relationship between the present study, the NE values for SFC46, SFC41, SFC36, FD and starch digestion, a mill might use FS to calibrate rolls SFC31, SFC26 and DRC are 2.31, 2.36, 2.40, 2.43, 2.44 and 2.17 for optimal FD within their operation process. Accordingly, Mcal/kg, respectively. Corresponding net energy for gain they might adjust roll parameters noting FD when FS ranges (NE ) values are 1.62, 1.66, 1.69, 1.73, 1.73 and 1.40 Mcal/kg, between 2 and 3%. respectively. The estimated NEm represents 99, 101, 103, 104, FD values below 0.31 kg/L may reduce DMI, increase the 106 of the tabular value for SFC (NRC 2000), and 97% of the variability of weight gain and predispose to acidosis and tabular value for DRC (NRC 2000). The NE value for SFC aver- bloat (Zinn et al. 2002). In mill operations in USA, SFC is pro- aged 2.39 Mcal/kg, compared with DRC, this represents an duced at a density between 0.31 and 0.41 kg/L (24–31 lb/bu; Figure 3. Relationship between total tract starch digestion (TSD, %) and FD (kg/L). JOURNAL OF APPLIED ANIMAL RESEARCH 29 Figure 4. Relationship between RSD (%) and FD (kg/L). Corona L, Rodriguez S, Ware RA, Zinn RA. 2005. Comparative effects of Owens et al., 2007). Zinn et al. (1990a) observed that decreasing whole, ground, dry-rolled and steam-flaked corn on digestion and density from 0.42 to 0.30 kg/L increased dietary starch diges- growth performance in feedlot cattle. Prof Anim Scient. 21:200–206. tion, but did not appreciably enhance feedlot cattle growth Domby EM, Anele UY, Gautam KK, Hergenreder JE, Pepper-Yowell AR, performance. Whereas ruminal, postruminal and total TSD Galyean ML. 2014. Interactive effects of bulk density of steam-flaked increased (P < 0.05; Table 4) with decreasing FD, the magnitude corn and concentration of sweet bran on feedlot cattle performance, carcass characteristics, and apparent total tract nutrient digestibility. J of the effect was most apparent at flake densities greater than Anim Sci. 92:1133–1143. 0.31 kg/L. Hales et al. (2010), evaluating the effects of SF corn Hales KE, Cole NA, Galyean ML, Leytem AB. 2010. Nutrient concentrations density at differing dietary forage levels on the cattle perform- and proportions in particle size fractions of corn steam flaked to ance, determined that the optimal FD was 0.335 kg/L. In con- different bulk densities. Prof Anim Scient. 26:511–519. sideration of the above, it is likely that the optimal corn FD is Hill FW, Anderson DL. 1958. Comparison of metabolizables energy and pro- ductive energy determinations with growing chicks. J Nutr. 64:587–603. between 0.36 and 0.31 kg/L. Huntington GB. 1997. Starch utilization by ruminants: basics to the bunk. J Anim Sci. 75:852. Matsushima JK. 2006. History of feed processing. Cattle grain processing Conclusions symposium. Oklahoma State University. p. 1–16. National Academies of Science, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM). 2016. Compared with dry rolling, steam flaking markedly enhances Nutrient requirements of beef cattle. Eighth revised edition. Washington the starch digestibility of corn. Improvements in starch diges- (DC): The National Academies Press. Doi: 10.17226/19014. tion of flaked corn are dependent on its density and thickness. National Research Council (NRC). 2000. Nutrient requirements of beef FT may be a convenient measure to evaluate the consistency in cattle. 7th rev. ed. Washington (DC): Natl. Acad. Press. the steam flaking process. Measures of starch enzymatic reac- Owens FN, Secrist DS, Hill WF, Gill DR. 1997. The effect of grain source and grain processing on performance of feedlot cattle: A review. Journal of tivity and FS are also useful indicators for optimization of the Animal Science. 75:868–879. steam flaking process. Owens CE, Zinn RA, Hassen A, Owens FN. 2016. Mathematical linkage of total-tract digestion of starch and neutral detergent fiber to their fecal concentrations and effect of site of starch digestion on extent Disclosure statement of digestion and energetic efficiency of cattle. Prof Anim Scient. 32:531–549. No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s). Owens FN. 2015. Optimization of feedlot diets with high energy density on energy and nutrients. II symposium international of feedlot prod. University of Porto, Alegre, Brazil. ORCID Owens FN, Zinn RA. 2005. Corn grain for cattle: influence of processing on site and extent of digestion. 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Kansas State University. Schwandt EF. 2015. Grain processing considerations influencing starch Manhattan, KS, pp. 1–6. USA. digestion and performance of feed cattle [PhD thesis dissertation. Corona L, Owens FN, Zinn RA. 2006. Impact of corn vitreousness and pro- Manhattan (KS). Kansas State University. Accessed March 29, 2020. cessing on site and extent of digestion by feedlot cattle. J Anim Sci. http://krex.k-state.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/2097/20571/ErinSchw 84:3020–3031. andt2015.pdf?sequence=1 30 M. ALEJANDRO FRANCO-HERNÁNDEZ ET AL. SchwandtEF,HubbertME,ThomsonDU,VahlCI,BartleSJ,ReinhardtCD. 2016a. White PJ, Pollack LM. 1995. Corn as a food source in the United States; part A survey of starch availability of steam-flaked corn in commercial feedlots II. Processes, products, composition, and nutritive values. Cereal Foods evaluating roll size and flaked density. Prof Anim Scient. 32:550–560. World. 40:756–762. Schwandt EF, Wagner JJ, Engle TE, Bartle SJ, Thomson DU, Reinhardt CD. 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Starch digestion BE, Walz PH. 2006b.Influence of steam-flaked corn moisture level and by feedlot cattle: predictions from analysis of feed and fecal starch density on journal of animal science. the site and extent of digestibility and nitrogen. J Anim Sci. 85:1727–1730. and feeding value for finishing cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 84:424–432. Zinn RA, Owens FN, Ware RA. 2002. Flaking corn: processing mechanism, Theurer CB. 1986. Grain processing effects on starch utilization by rumi- quality standards and impacts on energy availability and performance nants. J Anim Sci. 63:1649–1662. of feedlot cattle. J Anim Sci. 80:1145–1156. Watson SA. 2003. Description, development, structure and composition of the Zinn RA, Plascencia A. 1993. Interaction of whole cottonseed and corn kernel. Page 59 in corn chemistry and technology. 2nd ed. PJ White supplemental fat on digestive function in cattle. J Anim Sci. 71: and LA Johnson, ed. American Association of Cereal Chemists. 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Practical parameters for assessing starch digestion and feeding value of steam-flaked corn in finishing diets for feedlot cattle

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© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
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10.1080/09712119.2022.2149537
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JOURNAL OF APPLIED ANIMAL RESEARCH 2023, VOL. 51, NO. 1, 24–30 https://doi.org/10.1080/09712119.2022.2149537 Practical parameters for assessing starch digestion and feeding value of steam-flaked corn in finishing diets for feedlot cattle a a b c Manuel Alejandro Franco-Hernández , Luis Corona , Alejandro Plascencia and Richard Avery Zinn a b Department of Animal Nutrition and Biochemistry, Veterinary School, University National Autonomous of Mexico, Mexico City, Mexico; Institute for Research in Veterinary Sciences, University Autonomous of Baja California, Mexicali, México; Department of Animal Science, University of California, Davis, CA, USA ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY Received 20 April 2020 Six Holstein steers (153 kg ± 11) with cannulas in the rumen and proximal duodenum were used in a 6 × 6 Accepted 15 November 2022 Latin square design experiment to compare flake density (FD, kg/L), flake thickness (FT, mm), amyloglucosidase reactivity (AGR, % DM) and faecal starch (FS, % DM) as predictors of ruminal (RSD, KEYWORDS %) and total tract (TSD, %) starch digestion. Dietary treatments consisted of a finishing diet containing Corn; starch; processing; 77% corn. The six corn processing treatments consisted of dry-rolled corn (DRC) with a density of digestion; cattle 0.54 kg/L, and steam-flaked corn (SFC) processed to obtain densities of 0.46, 0.41, 0.36, 0.31 and 0.26 kg/L. Compared with DRC, steam flaking enhanced postruminal (34.2%, P < 0.01) and TSD (7.8%, 2 2 P < 0.01). Measures of FS were the best single predictor of both ruminal (r = 0.97) and TSD (r = 0.98). Whereas AGR was a good predictor of RSD (r = 0.94), it was less effective than FS for estimation of TSD (r = 0.91). We conclude that compared with dry rolling, stream flaking markedly enhances the feeding value of corn. To evaluate the consistency of the flaking process, we recommend in addition to the determinations of FD, measurements of FT, starch enzymatic reactivity and FS are useful indicators. 1. Introduction comparative reliability as predictors of ruminal (RSD, %) and total TSD (%). Flake density (FD) is generally considered one of the most important quality control measures in the steam flaking process (Zinn et al. 2002; Sindt et al. 2006a). In commercial prac- 2. Material and methods tice, corn is typically flaked to a bulk density of between Dietary treatments and corn processing 0.31 kg/L (24 lb/ bu) and 0.40 kg/L (31 lb/bu; Schwandt et al., 2006b). Optimal FD is a consideration of enhancements in Six dietary treatments consisted of a basal finishing diet contain- ruminal and total tract digestion, flake production rate (T/h), ing 77% corn grain (DM basis) as dry-rolled (DR) with a density of flake durability and processing cost (Owens and Zinn 2005). 0.54 kg/L or 42 lb/bu (dry-rolled corn (DRC)) or steam-flaked to Decreasing FD increases in a linear fashion the rate of in vitro obtain densities of 0.46 (SFC46), 0.41 (SFC41), 0.36 (SFC36), and in vivo ruminal digestion (Zinn 1990a; Hales et al. 2010; 0.31 (SFC31) and 0.26 kg/L (36, 32, 28, 24 and 20 lb/bu). Schwandt et al. 2016b), as well as postruminal and total tract Density measures were determined (Weight Per Bushel starch digestion (TSD) (Zinn 1990a). There is an optimal FD at Tester, Mill & Elevatory Supply Co., Kansas City, MO) on pro- which starch digestion approaches 100%. Reducing FD cessed grain obtained as it exited directly beneath the rolls. beyond 0.36 kg/L may increase starch gelatinization, affording Experimental diets are shown in Table 1. Yellow corn used a more durable flake, but otherwise, may not further enhance was a commercial blend of US #2 dent. DR corn was prepared total tract digestion, and perhaps lead to decreased feeding by passing whole corn through rollers (46 × 61 cm rolls, 5.5 cor- value (Zinn 1990a; Domby et al. 2014). Considering the wide rugations/cm; Memco, Mills Rolls, Mill Engineering & Machinery variation in FD observed between steam flakers and feedlots, Co., Oklahoma, CA) that had been adjusted so that kernels were and the wide availability of analytical procedures to determine broken to a density of 0.54 kg/L. Steam-flaked corn (SFC) was starch availability at the feed mill (Schwandt et al. 2016a), it is prepared as follows: A chest situated directly above the necessary to simultaneously evaluate the practicality of rollers (46 × 61 cm rolls, 5.5 corrugations/cm; Memco, Mills various measures for assessing consistency and process optim- Rolls, Mill Engineering & Machinery Co., Oklahoma, CA) was ization. This study was conducted to test a wide range of corn filled to capacity (440 kg) with whole corn and brought to a flake densities (FD, kg/L) and associated changes in flake thick- constant temperature (102°C) at atmospheric pressure using ness (FT, mm), amyloglucosidase reactive starch (AGR, % DM) steam (boiler pressure 4.218 kg/cm or 0.0414 kPa). The corn and faecal starch (FS, % DM) in order to further assess their was steamed for 20 min before starting the rollers, without CONTACT Luis Corona gochi@unam.mx Department of Animal Nutrition and Biochemistry, Veterinary School, University National Autonomous of Mexico, Mexico City 4510, Mexico © 2023 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, dis- tribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. JOURNAL OF APPLIED ANIMAL RESEARCH 25 Table 1. Composition of diets fed for steers. follows: Samples were first oven-dried at 70°C and then Treatments ground in a laboratory mill (Micro-Mill, Bell-Arts Products, DRC SFC Pequannock, N J). Samples were then oven-dried at 105°C Ingredients, (% of DM) until constant weight and stored in sealed glass jars. Alfalfa hay 5.00 5.00 Sudan hay 5.00 5.00 SFC – 77.0 Sample analysis and calculations DRC 77.0 – Cane molasses 6.0 6.0 FT was determined according to Zinn (1990a), and particle size Yellow grease 3.50 3.50 distribution of DR and SF corn according to ASAE (Baker and Limestone 1.50 1.50 Magnesium oxide 0.20 0.20 Herman 2002). AGR (%) was determined according to Zinn Urea 1.15 1.15 (1990a), with incubation time extended to 4 h. Enzymatic reac- Trace mineral salt 0.35 0.35 tive starch (RS) was determined as described by Rodríguez et al. Chromic oxide 0.30 0.30 (2001) as follows: (1) samples of the test grain were ground to Corn was processed as dry-rolled (DR) with a density of 0.54 kg/L (42 lb/bu), or as steam-flaked (SF) to obtain densities of 0.46, 0.41, 0.36, 0.31 and 0.26 kg/L pass through a 20 mesh screen; (2) approximately 0.15 g of the (36, 32, 28, 24 and 20 lb/bu). ground sample was placed in a 20 mL culture tube along with 2 Trace mineral salt contained: 0.052% KI; 0.68% CoSO ; 1.04%CuSO ; 1.07% 4 4 stainless steel bearing (22 mm diam); (3) 20 mL of a phosphate MnSO ; 1.24% ZnO ; 3.57% FeSO ; and 92.96% NaCl. 4 4 4 buffer-enzyme solution (8.71 g potassium phosphate, 0.65 g sodium carbonate, 1.75 g calcium carbonate, 0.55 mg amylo- prior tempering agent . Approximately 440 kg of the initial glucosidase, 8 mg alpha-amylase, 8 mg pancreatin, 2 mg lytic steam-processed grain that exited the rolls during warm-up enzyme, and 2 mg protease in 1 L water) plus a drop of was not fed to steers on this study. Tension of the rollers was toluene was added to each tube; (4) tubes were mixed and adjusted to provide the indicated FD (0.46, 0.41, 0.36, 0.31 then incubated in a 39°C in a shaking water bath for 6 h; (5) and 0.26 kg/L, in avoirdupois units these are 36, 32, 28, 24 tubes were removed from the water bath, 2 mL zinc sulphate and 20 pounds per bushel). Retention time of grain in the was added and tubes were allowed to cool in an ice bath for steam chamber was approximately 20 min. The SFC was 10 min before proceeding with glucose analysis (Zinn 1990b). allowed to air-dry (5 d) before use in diet preparation. Insoluble reactive starch (IRS) was calculated as: IRS = (RS − AGR)/6, where 6 represents the number of hours of the in vitro incubation. Insoluble starch digestion in the rumen (ISD, Metabolism trial %) was calculated as: ISD = (100 − AGR) × [IRS/(IRS + 0.05)], Animals and sampling where 0.05 is an estimate of the passage rate (fraction per All procedures involving animal care and management were in hour) of grain from the rumen. Predicted ruminal starch diges- accordance with and approved by the University of California, tion (PRSD, %) was calculated as: PRSD = 1.32 (AGR) + 0.93 Davis Animal Use and Care Committee. (ISD)(Rodríguez et al. 2001). Six Holstein steers (153 ± 11 kg) with cannulas in the rumen Feed, duodenal and faecal samples were subject to the fol- and proximal duodenum (Zinn and Plascencia 1993) were used lowing analysis: dry matter (oven drying at 105°C until no in a 6 × 6 Latin square experiment design to examine the effect further weight loss; method 930.15; AOAC 2000); chromic of corn FD on site and extent of digestion. Steers were housed oxide (Hill and Anderson 1958) and starch (Zinn 1990b). The in individual pens (3.9 m ) in an indoor facility, with a concrete NE value of processed corn treatments was calculated floor covered with a neoprene mat, automatic waterers and according to Zinn et al. (2002): Corn NE , Mcal/kg = −0.75 + individual feed bunks. All steers received ad libitum access to 0.032 TSD, where TSD is the determined total TSD (%) for the basal diet (Table 1) for 14 days before the initiation of the each treatment. trial. The basal diet was fed in two equal proportions at 0800 and 2000h daily. Chromic oxide (3.0 g/kg of diet air-dry basis) Statistical analyses was used as an indigestible marker to estimate nutrient flow and digestibility. Chromic oxide was premixed with minor Statistical relationships (total starch digestion vs. FS; FT vs FD; ingredients (urea and mineral supplement composed by lime- FD vs. PRSD; PRSD vs. observed ruminal digestion of starch; stone and trace mineral salt) before inclusion in complete rumen starch digestion vs FD and total starch digestion vs. mixed diets. To avoid feed refusals, DM intake was restricted FD) were determined using regression analysis (Statistix, to 2.25% of live weight (90% of observed DM intake during Version 10.0, Analytical Software, Tallahassee, FL). The treat- the 14-d preliminary period before start of the trial). Experimen- ment effects on characteristics of digestion were analysed as tal periods consisted of 14 days, with 10 days for dietary treat- a 6 × 6 Latin square design using the (Statistix, Version 10.0, ment adjustment and 4 days for sample collection. During the Analytical Software, Tallahassee, FL). The fixed effect was treat- collection period, duodenal and faecal samples were taken ment and random effects were steer and period. The statistical from all steers, twice daily as follows: d 1, 0750 and 1350 h; d model for the trial was as follows: 2, 0900 and 1500 h; d 3, 1050 and 1650 h; and d 4, 1200 and Y = µ + S + P + T + E , where: Y is the response variable, ijk i j k ijk ijk 1800h. Individual samples consisted of approximately 500 mL µ is the common experimental effect, S is the steer effect (n = of duodenal chyme and 200 g (wet basis) of faecal material. 6), P is the period effect, T is the treatment effect and E is the j k ijk Feed, duodenal and faecal samples from each steer and residual error. Treatments effects on digestion and fermenta- within each collection period were prepared for analysis as tion variables were tested as follows: DRC vs SF corn 26 M. ALEJANDRO FRANCO-HERNÁNDEZ ET AL. Table 2. Characteristics of processed corn. averaged 70.1 and 74.1% for DRC and SFC, respectively. The a b DRC SFC in vitro estimate of ruminal starch digestion (RSD) was inversely Density, kg/L 0.54 0.46 0.41 0.36 0.31 0.26 associated (PRSD = −0.3842FD + 0.8788, r = 0.98; Figure 1) DM, % 91.35 93.64 92.48 91.77 91.30 93.25 with FD. As FD decreased from 0.46 to 0.26 kg/L, PRSD CP (N x 6.25), % DM 8.30 8.13 8.27 8.15 7.89 7.53 increased from 70.2 to 77.5%. It warrants noting that consistent Starch, % DM 73.67 78.80 75.16 75.27 79.19 79.73 NDF, % DM 6.56 7.13 7.69 7.80 8.08 6.90 relationships between FD and enzymatic starch digestion are Ash, % DM 1.30 1.50 1.41 1.31 1.23 0.90 more likely when measures are obtained from the same mill Amyloglucosidase reactivity (AGR) , % 10.04 13.03 13.16 20.38 27.97 34.14 operation. Numerous factors affect the degree of starch disrup- Insoluble starch digestibility (ISD) , % 60.10 57.18 58.50 54.20 48.35 43.35 PRSD , % 70.13 70.21 71.65 74.58 76.31 77.49 tion at the rolls for a given FD, including grain moisture, tem- Dry rolled corn (42 lb/bu). pering, steaming time and flaker dimensions (Zinn et al. Steam flaked corn (36, 32, 28, 24 and 20 lb/bu). 2002). In a 17-feedlot survey, Schwandt (2015) likewise AGR = Corn reactive to amyloglucosidase, soluble starch measurement. Corn was observed linear increases in enzymatic starch availability ground and passed through a mesh no. 20 before enzymatic digestion of 4 h. (Zinn 1990). (average 50.6%, range = 37.0–65.0%) with decreasing FD ISD = Insoluble starch digestibility, amylase reactive to insoluble starch. Corn (average 0.35 kg/L, range = 0.31–0.4 kg/L). However, as their was ground and passed through a mesh no. 20 before enzymatic digestion measures were taken across multiple feed mill operations, the of 6 h. (Rodríguez et al. 2001). Predicted ruminal starch digestion (1.32AGR +0.93ISD) (Rodríguez et al. 2001). relationship between FD and enzymatic starch availability was less closely associated (r = 0.31). In vitro enzymatic estimates of the percentage of RSD (Table treatments, and effect of FD (0.46, 0.41, 0.36, 0.31 and 0.26 kg/L) 2) explained 77% (P < 0.01) of the variation (Figure 2)in in vivo by means of polynomial contrasts (SAS, 2004 ). Comparisons measures. Previous studies (Rodríguez et al. 2001; Corona et al. were considered significant when the probability value was 2006) reported that in vitro RSD explained from 78 to 90% of ≤0.05, and as trend when the P value was >0.05 and ≤0.10. the variation of the in vivo RSD. Results and discussion Chemical composition of processed corn and in vitro Physical characteristics of processed corn enzymatic digestion Consistent with previous studies (Zinn et al. 2002), FT (mm) was Characteristics of processed corn treatments are shown in closely associated (r = 0.99) with FD (FD, kg/L): FD = 0.111 + Table 2. Starch concentration of SFC (77.6%) was slightly 0.116 FT. Whereas by convention, FD measures must be greater than the average value of 76%, and CP content was obtained directly as grain exits the rolls, the advantage of FT lower (8.5 vs 9.8%) than the tabular values reported by is that measures may be obtained at any time or place (for NASEM (2016). White and Pollack (1995) reported that example, from the feed bunk). Differences in the production measures for starch content of yellow corn range between 61 of fines (in FD measures) as well as manual technique in obtain- and 78%. Corn grain starch concentration is inversely with ing FT measures contribute to the variation in the relationship protein and oil concentration (Zinn et al. 2002). In vitro PRSD between FD and FT (Zinn 1990a). Figure 1. Relationship between PRSD (%) and FD (kg/L). JOURNAL OF APPLIED ANIMAL RESEARCH 27 Figure 2. Relationship between the PRSD (%) and observed ruminal digestion of starch (ORSD, %). Across corn processing treatments, a major proportion of Compared with DRC, steam flaking markedly enhanced corn particles were concentrated in ranges from <16 mm to (34.2%, P < 0.01) postruminal starch digestion. This enhance- ≥4 mm (32.05 and 89.6% for DRC and SFC, respectively). Geo- ment is due to processing effects on the physical properties metric mean particle size was 2981 and 5054 μm for DRC and of the grain particles entering the intestine (Theurer 1986; SFC, respectively (Table 3). Values for DRC are within the Zinn 1990b). Corn starch is encapsulated in a matrix of ranges reported by Schwandt et al. (2016b). protein (89% of corn protein is found in the starch matrix; Watson 2003), although the protein content is higher in corn hybrids with higher protein content (Corona et al. Characteristics of ruminal, postruminal, and total tract 2006), that acts as a primary barrier to starch hydrolysis. digestion Steam flaking disrupts this matrix, increases surface area for Treatment effects on ruminal, postruminal and total TSD are microbial or enzymatic attack together with gelatinization shown in Table 4. Steam flaking enhanced (11.3%, P < 0.01) of the starch granules (Matsushima 2006) and enhances the RSD compared with DRC. Measures of RSD obtained with exposure of starch to digestive processes postruminally. cattle cannulated in duodenum, fell within the previously Compared with DRC, steam flaking increased (7.8%, P < reported range of 80–85% for SFC (Huntington 1997; Zinn 0.01) total TSD. TSD for DRC was numerically greater (6%) et al. 2002) and 68–76%for DRC (Zinn 1990b; Zinn et al. 1995; than previously observed (Owens and Zinn 2005; Corona Corona et al. 2006; Plascencia and Jose Maria 2007). Due to et al. 2006). Whereas, starch digestion measures for SFC the disruption of the protein matrix that envelops the starch were consistent with previous studies (Zinn et al. 2002; in SFC, there is greater availability for ruminal starch fermenta- Owens and Zinn 2005; Corona et al. 2006). In a 9-trial tion (Zinn et al., 2002, Corona et al. 2006). summary, Huntington (1997) observed that steam flaking Table 3. Influence of processing on physical characteristics of corn. SFC kg/L Item DRC 0.46 0.41 0.36 0.31 0.26 Flake thickness, mm 2.93 2.63 2.21 1.75 1.23 Particle size (mm), % total 16 00 0 0 00 8–16 1.67 35.67 41.88 22.32 16.83 20.81 4–8 30.38 39.66 42.28 50.38 53.71 52.03 2–4 51.36 13.84 11.08 14.22 16.76 16.55 1–2 10.95 3.59 2.56 5.61 6.64 5.9 0.5–1 3.33 3.45 1.03 3.71 3.16 2.48 0.25–0.5 1.45 2.32 0.93 3.12 1.52 1.96 <0.25 0.85 1.47 0.23 0.65 1.38 0.27 Geometric mean particle size, μm 2981 5147 6386 4578 4381 4776 Surface area, cm /g 31 23 14 24 25 21 Particle/g 226 286 22 234 223 92 Geometric standard deviation 1.96 2.54 1.95 2.37 2.32 2.12 Steam flaked corn (36, 32, 28, 24 and 20 lb/bu). Dry rolled corn (42 lb/bu). 28 M. ALEJANDRO FRANCO-HERNÁNDEZ ET AL. Table 4. Effect of corn processing on site and extent of starch digestion in cattle. SFC Density b c Item DRC 0.46 0.41 0.36 0.31 0.26 SEM Proc LQ Intake, g/d DM 3389 3438 3430 3418 3406 3445 Starch 1803 1829 1825 1818 1812 1833 Starch digestion, % Ruminal 71.3 77.7 75.5 78.1 81.4 84.0 2.80 <0.01 0.02 0.23 Posruminal 68.8 84.0 89.1 93.4 97.3 98.0 3.3 <0.01 <0.01 0.38 Total tract 91.4 95.9 97.3 98.5 99.5 99.7 0.009 <0.01 <0.01 0.41 Steam flaked corn with densities of 0.46, 0.41, 0.36, 0.31, 0.26 kg/L (36, 32, 28, 24 and 20 lb/bu measurement taken on freshly flaked corn samples directly beneath the rolls). Dry rolled corn, density = 0.54 kg/L (42 lb/bu). Processing effect (DRC vs SFC). Starch digestion as a percentage of starch intake. Starch digestion as a percentage of starch entering the small intestine. increased total TSD 7.6% over that of dry rolling corn. As will improvement of 9%. This is in close agreement with 11.1% be discussed later, variations in responses to steam flaking on obtained for corn with an FD of 0.34 kg/L (Zinn 1990b). In the total TSD are largely accounted for by differences in degree of present study, as FD decreased from 0.46 to 0.26 kg/L estimates processing. of NE for SFC vs DRC was doubled (6.4–12.4%, respectively). The Total TSD was closely associated with FD: (TSD, %) = 96.5 + relative magnitude of the improvement will also depend on 2 2 30.2FD – 68.6FD (Figure 3, r = 0.99). Likewise, RSD was a changes brought about through the degree of processing of predictable function of FD: (RSD, %) = 92.5–36.6 FD (Figure DRC. Plascencia and Jose Maria (2007) observed that the total 4, r = 0.76). However, as mentioned previously, across mul- TSD of DRC increased from 93.9% to 96.6% as the density of tiple studies FD has been a less precise predictor of TSD DRC decreased from 0.51 to 0.45 kg/L. Corona et al. (2005) and RSD (Zinn et al. 2002; 64-trial summary; total TSD, % = observed that whereas total TSD was greater (7%) for finely 2 2 107–0.256 FD; r = 0.57 and RSD, % = 118.9–109.3 FD; r = ground (mean particle size < 2 mm, 72%) vs DRC (mean particle 0.22). Owens (2015) observed that TSD by feedlot cattle gen- size < 2 mm, 23%), the NE value of the corn based on growth erally exceeded 98% whenever FD was ≤0.39 kg/L. Notwith- performance was not improved (NE averaging 1.43 and 1.4 standing, decreasing FD from 0.39 to 0.31 kg/L may further Mcal/kg, respectively). enhance ADG, feed efficiency and dietary NE and NE Consistent with previous studies (Zinn et al. 2007; Owens m g (Zinn 1990b; Zinn et al. 2002). et al. 2016) FS (%, DM basis) was closely associated with both 2 2 There is a close association between TSD and the NE value of RSD (RSD, % = 85.9–2.88FS + 0.204FS , r = 0.97) and TSD 2 2 corn (r = 0.88; Zinn et al. 2002): NE (Mcal/kg) = −0.75 + 0.032 (TSD, % = 100.4–0.484FS, r = 0.98). Given the potential vari- TSD). Applying the above equation to the values observed in ation among feedmill operations in the relationship between the present study, the NE values for SFC46, SFC41, SFC36, FD and starch digestion, a mill might use FS to calibrate rolls SFC31, SFC26 and DRC are 2.31, 2.36, 2.40, 2.43, 2.44 and 2.17 for optimal FD within their operation process. Accordingly, Mcal/kg, respectively. Corresponding net energy for gain they might adjust roll parameters noting FD when FS ranges (NE ) values are 1.62, 1.66, 1.69, 1.73, 1.73 and 1.40 Mcal/kg, between 2 and 3%. respectively. The estimated NEm represents 99, 101, 103, 104, FD values below 0.31 kg/L may reduce DMI, increase the 106 of the tabular value for SFC (NRC 2000), and 97% of the variability of weight gain and predispose to acidosis and tabular value for DRC (NRC 2000). The NE value for SFC aver- bloat (Zinn et al. 2002). In mill operations in USA, SFC is pro- aged 2.39 Mcal/kg, compared with DRC, this represents an duced at a density between 0.31 and 0.41 kg/L (24–31 lb/bu; Figure 3. Relationship between total tract starch digestion (TSD, %) and FD (kg/L). JOURNAL OF APPLIED ANIMAL RESEARCH 29 Figure 4. Relationship between RSD (%) and FD (kg/L). Corona L, Rodriguez S, Ware RA, Zinn RA. 2005. Comparative effects of Owens et al., 2007). Zinn et al. (1990a) observed that decreasing whole, ground, dry-rolled and steam-flaked corn on digestion and density from 0.42 to 0.30 kg/L increased dietary starch diges- growth performance in feedlot cattle. Prof Anim Scient. 21:200–206. tion, but did not appreciably enhance feedlot cattle growth Domby EM, Anele UY, Gautam KK, Hergenreder JE, Pepper-Yowell AR, performance. Whereas ruminal, postruminal and total TSD Galyean ML. 2014. Interactive effects of bulk density of steam-flaked increased (P < 0.05; Table 4) with decreasing FD, the magnitude corn and concentration of sweet bran on feedlot cattle performance, carcass characteristics, and apparent total tract nutrient digestibility. J of the effect was most apparent at flake densities greater than Anim Sci. 92:1133–1143. 0.31 kg/L. Hales et al. (2010), evaluating the effects of SF corn Hales KE, Cole NA, Galyean ML, Leytem AB. 2010. Nutrient concentrations density at differing dietary forage levels on the cattle perform- and proportions in particle size fractions of corn steam flaked to ance, determined that the optimal FD was 0.335 kg/L. In con- different bulk densities. Prof Anim Scient. 26:511–519. sideration of the above, it is likely that the optimal corn FD is Hill FW, Anderson DL. 1958. Comparison of metabolizables energy and pro- ductive energy determinations with growing chicks. J Nutr. 64:587–603. between 0.36 and 0.31 kg/L. Huntington GB. 1997. 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Journal

Journal of Applied Animal ResearchTaylor & Francis

Published: Dec 31, 2023

Keywords: Corn; starch; processing; digestion; cattle

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