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An urgent call‐to‐action to protect the nonhuman primates and Indigenous Peoples of the Brazilian Amazon

An urgent call‐to‐action to protect the nonhuman primates and Indigenous Peoples of the Brazilian... AbbreviationsCUsConservation UnitsIPLsIndigenous Peoples' landsOLsother lands“Safeguarding Indigenous Peoples' lands, languages, and cultures represents our greatest chance to prevent the extinction of the world's primates”(Estrada et al., 2022).INTRODUCTIONNonhuman primates (hereafter primates) are facing an impending extinction crisis, with 68% of species, for which data are available, listed as Vulnerable, Endangered, or Critically Endangered, and 93% of species experiencing declining populations (Estrada et al., 2022). And, although the proportion of threatened primate species in Madagascar (103/105 species = 98%) and Asia (89/101 = 88%) is considerably higher than currently assessed for mainland Africa (39/85 = 45%) and the Neotropics (71/161 = 44%) (Estrada et al., 2022), relaxed environmental protection leading to increased deforestation, and the expansion of industrial agriculture, cattle ranching, mining, dam construction, oil exploration, and road and rail networks, along with climate change, imperil the survivorship of both Indigenous Peoples and primate communities throughout Mexico, Central America, and South America (Estrada et al., 2017, 2019, 2020, 2022). Deforestation and habitat fragmentation are especially harmful to primates of the American tropics (Playtrrhini), because all species are arboreal and require areas of continuous forest for refuge, travel, and finding food (Eppley et al., 2022; Fleagle, 2013). For instance, a decrease in canopy cover and connectivity resulting from habitat conversion is likely to result in an increase in terrestrial behavior, potentially exposing these primates to an increased risk of predation (Eppley et al., 2022). Here we describe the specific challenges faced by primates and Indigenous Peoples in the Brazilian Amazon and outline actions that individuals can take to safeguard this important world region.Amazonia is composed of nine countries (Figure 1), including one million Indigenous Peoples and more than 400 ethnic groups (Survival, 2022). It is home to the largest area of primary tropical rainforest in the world (5.3 Mkm2) (Butler, 2020a). Brazil, the largest Amazonian nation, accounts for approximately 62% of the Amazon rainforest (Walker, 2019). Brazil also is the most primate‐rich country in the world, with 126 primate species (IUCN, 2022). Approximately 80% (n = 100) of Brazil's primate species inhabit the Amazon (Instituto Chico Mendes de Conservação da Biodiversidade, 2022, Table 1). Data on the conservation status of 10 of Brazil's Amazonian primate species are unavailable. Of the remaining 90 species, 30% are listed as Vulnerable (n = 18), Endangered (n = 6), or Critically Endangered (n = 3), and 10% are Near Threatened (n = 9) (Table 1). The most threatened taxa include relatively large‐bodied primates (6–12 kg) such as spider monkeys, howler monkeys, and woolly monkeys. However, individual species of smaller‐bodied taxa (0.1–3 kg) such as pygmy marmosets, marmosets, tamarins, night monkeys, titi monkeys, cuxiús, capuchins, and uakaris are also threatened (Table 1). Distressingly, 86% of Brazil's Amazonian primate species have declining populations, and only 14% have stable populations. There are no primate species in the Brazilian Amazon that are experiencing an increase in population size (Table 1).1FigureMap of the Brazilian Amazon highlighting the locations of Conservation Units (CUs or nature reserves), Indigenous Peoples’ lands (IPLs), and random points used in our analyses.1TableThe biome(s) inhabited, IUCN conservation status (except when indicated otherwise), and population trend of primate species inhabiting the Brazilian Amazon.vbBiomeConservation statusaPopulation trendAlouatta belzebulAmazonia, Cerrado, Atlantic ForestENDecreasingAlouatta carayaAmazonia, CaatingaNTDecreasingAlouatta discolorAmazoniaVUDecreasingAlouatta macconnelliAmazoniaLCStableAlouatta nigerrimaAmazoniaLCDecreasingAlouatta seniculusAmazonia, CerradoLCDecreasingAotus azaraeAmazonia, Caatinga, Cerrado, PantanalLCDecreasingAotus nancymaaeAmazoniaVUDecreasingAotus nigricepsAmazonia, CerradoLCUnknownAotus trivirgatusAmazoniaLCDecreasingAotus vociferansAmazoniaLCUnknownAteles belzebuthAmazoniaENDecreasingAteles chamekAmazonia, Cerrado, PantanalENDecreasingAteles marginatusAmazoniaENDecreasingAteles paniscusAmazoniaVUDecreasingCacajao ayresiAmazoniaLCStableCacajao calvusAmazoniaVUDecreasingCacajao melanocephalusbAmazoniaVUDecreasingCacajao novaesicAmazoniaNTUnknownCacajao ouakarydAmazoniaLCStableCacajao rubicunduscAmazoniaLCUnknownCacajao ucayaliicAmazoniaDDUnknownCallibella humilisAmazoniaLCUnknownCallimico goeldiiAmazoniaVUDecreasingCebuella niveiventrisAmazoniaVUDecreasingCebuella pygmaeaAmazoniaVUDecreasingCebus albifronsAmazoniaLCDecreasingCebus kaaporiAmazoniaCRDecreasingCebus olivaceusAmazoniaLCStableCebus unicolorAmazonia, CerradoVUDecreasingCebus yuracusAmazoniaNTDecreasingCheracebus luciferAmazoniaLCUnknownCheracebus lugensAmazoniaLCUnknownCheracebus purinusAmazoniaLCStableCheracebus regulusAmazoniaLCUnknownChiropotes albinasusAmazonia, CerradoVUDecreasingChiropotes chiropotesAmazoniaLCStableChiropotes sagulatusAmazoniaLCUnknownChiropotes satanasAmazonia, CerradoENDecreasingChiropotes utahickaeAmazonia, CerradoVUDecreasingLagothrix lagothrichaAmazonia, CerradoVUDecreasingLeontocebus cruzlimaiAmazoniaLCUnknownLeontocebus fuscicollisAmazoniaLCDecreasingLeontocebus fuscusAmazoniaLCUnknownLeontocebus nigricollisAmazoniaLCDecreasingLeontocebus weddelliAmazoniaLCUnknownMico acariensisAmazoniaLCUnknownMico argentatusAmazoniaLCDecreasingMico chrysoleucosAmazoniaLCDecreasingMico emiliaeAmazoniaLCUnknownMico humeraliferAmazoniaNTDecreasingMico intermediusAmazoniaLCDecreasingMico leucippeAmazoniaLCDecreasingMico marcaiAmazoniaVUDecreasingMico mauesiAmazoniaLCUnknownMico melanurusAmazonia, Cerrado, PantanalNTDecreasingMico mundurukuAmazoniaVUDecreasingMico nigricepsAmazoniaNTDecreasingMico rondoniAmazoniaVUDecreasingMico satereiAmazoniaLCUnknownPithecia albicansAmazoniaLCDecreasingPithecia chrysocephalaAmazoniaLCDecreasingPithecia irrorataAmazonia, CerradoDDDecreasingPithecia monachusAmazoniaLCDecreasingPithecia pitheciaAmazoniaLCDecreasingPithecia vanzoliniiAmazoniaDDDecreasingPlecturocebus baptistaAmazoniaLCStablePlecturocebus bernhardiAmazoniaLCStablePlecturocebus brunneusAmazoniaVUDecreasingPlecturocebus caligatusAmazoniaLCUnknownPlecturocebus cinerascensAmazonia, CerradoLCUnknownPlecturocebus cupreusAmazoniaLCUnknownPlecturocebus donacophilusAmazonia, PantanalLCUnknownPlecturocebus grovesiAmazoniaCRDecreasingPlecturocebus hoffmannsiAmazoniaLCUnknownPlecturocebus miltoniAmazoniaDDUnknownPlecturocebus molochAmazonia, CerradoLCUnknownPlecturocebus parecisAmazonia, CerradoNTDecreasingPlecturocebus stephennashiAmazoniaDDUnknownPlecturocebus toppiniAmazoniaLCDecreasingPlecturocebus vieiraiAmazoniaDDUnknownSaguinus bicolorAmazoniaCRDecreasingSaguinus imperatorAmazoniaLCDecreasingSaguinus inustusAmazoniaLCStableSaguinus labiatusAmazoniaLCDecreasingSaguinus martinsiAmazoniaNTDecreasingSaguinus midasAmazoniaLCStableSaguinus mystaxAmazoniaLCDecreasingSaguinus nigerAmazonia, CerradoVUDecreasingSaguinus ursulusAmazonia, CerradoVUDecreasingSaimiri boliviensisAmazoniaLCDecreasingSaimiri cassiquiarensisAmazoniaLCUnknownSaimiri collinsiAmazonia, CerradoLCDecreasingSaimiri macrodonAmazoniaUnknownUnknownSaimiri sciureusAmazoniaLCDecreasingSaimiri ustusAmazonia, CerradoNTDecreasingSaimiri vanzoliniiAmazoniaENDecreasingSapajus apellaAmazonia, CerradoLCDecreasingSapajus cayAmazonia, Cerrado, Atlantic Forest, PantanalLCDecreasingSapajus libidinosusAmazonia, Caatinga, Cerrado, Atlantic ForestNTDecreasingaConservation status: CR=Critically Endangered; DD=Data Deficient; EN=Endangered; LC=Least Concern; NT=Near Threatened; VU=Vulnerable.bListed as Cacajao hosomi in the IUCN Red List.cAccording to the Brazilian List of Threatened Species.dListed as Cacajao melanocephalus in the IUCN Red List.Four of the top seven countries in the world with the most tropical primary forest lost in 2019, 2020, and 2021 were the Amazonian nations of Brazil (4,610,000 ha), Bolivia (858,000 ha), Peru (506,000 ha), and Colombia (410,000 ha) (Global Forest Watch, 2022). Consequently, the long‐term health of Amazonian ecosystems remains in doubt, as vast areas are being transformed into landscapes that are unsuitable for forest‐dependent species (Sales et al., 2020, Table 2). Based on several modeling scenarios, it is estimated that by the end of the century, 50%–90% of the current range of Amazonian rainforest primates will be lost in response to habitat conversion and climate change (Sales et al., 2020).2TableLoss of humid tropical primary forest (HTPF) across Amazonia during the 21st Century.aTotal tree coverCountryHTPFb lost (Mhac)Decrease (%)Lostd (Mha)HTPF lost (Mha)(2001–2021)(2001–2021)(2017–2021)Brazil28.28.162.88.09Bolivia3.48.86.71.28Peru2.33.33.60.82Colombia1.83.34.90.75Venezuela0.61.42.30.21Ecuador0.21.90.90.08Suriname0.11.10.20.06Guyana0.10.80.20.05French Guiana (France)0.050.70.080.01TOTAL36.7581.6811.35aData are from Global Forest Watch (consulted July 7, 2022).bHTPF is humid tropical primary forest.cMha is millions of hectares.dTree cover is based on >30% tree canopy.DRIVERS OF HABITAT CONVERSIONDeforestationAmazonia may soon be approaching a tipping point, in terms forest ecosystem resilience, as almost 20% of its forests have been lost in the past 50 years (Mataveli et al., 2021). Scientists have argued that a 30% to 40% loss of native rainforests could result in “savannization” of the Amazon causing an almost 60% decrease in rainfall, extended periods of drought, and a marked increase in temperature (between 2° and 7°C), subjecting nonhuman primates and more than 11 million regional inhabitants to severe heat stress (Alves de Oliveira et al., 2021; Carvalho et al., 2019). Between 2001 and 2021 Amazonia lost 81.7 Mha of natural tree cover and 36.8 Mha of humid tropical primary forest (Global Forest Watch, 2022; Table 2). Brazil alone accounted for 77% of the total forest loss. The amount of tree cover lost in Brazil during this 20‐year period (62.8 Mha, Table 2) represents an area greater than the size of the country of Ukraine. In April 2021, Brazil created an environmental plan (Resolução no 3, de 9 de abril de 2021) to limit deforestation in its Amazon region to approximately 870,000 ha per year (the average for the period between 2016 and 2020). In terms of rainforest conservation, this represents an amount of deforestation that is 69% larger than the average area deforested per year between 2012 and 2014 (516,000 ha), when the Brazilian government had more rigorous policies of forest protection. Moreover, this new legislation has not been effectively enforced, and in 2021 Brazil lost 1.5 Mha of humid primary forest (Table 2). During the first 3 months of 2022, deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon was 94,134 ha, a 64% increase from the same period the previous year (Rocha & Pozzebon, 2022).Soy production and cattle ranchingIn addition to logging, large parts of Amazonia have been converted into anthropogenic landscapes for purposes of industrial agriculture, principally soybean production and cattle ranching (Gatti et al., 2021). Over the past 30 years, an estimated 8 Mha of Amazonia has been deforested for soybean production (Butler, 2020b). In 2006, a soy supply‐chain moratorium was implemented for Brazil, with major soy trading companies committing not to purchase soybeans grown on deforested land (Gollnow et al., 2018). This program has been successful in reducing rates of deforestation, with over 50% of new soy production grown on land deforested before 2006. However, in 2019 (the first year of Jair Bolsonaro's government), the Brazilian Amazon lost 140,000 ha to new soy production (Schneider et al., 2021). More importantly, an unanticipated result of the soy moritorium is that in moving soy production to already deforested land, principally cattle pastures, new areas of the Brazilian Amazon are being deforested to replace and expand cattle production (Gollnow et al., 2018). In recent years, cattle ranching has surpassed soy production in altering the Amazonian landscape, with “70% of deforested land in the Amazon… used for cattle ranching” (Filho et al., 2021). Today, Brazil is the world's largest exporter of beef, accounting for 23% of total global beef exports (Brazilian Farmers, 2023). In 2000, there were 48 million head of cattle in the Brazilian Amazon (Qin et al., 2019). This figure increased to 86 million head in 2019, and approximately 92 million in 2021. These numbers translate to approximately 38 Mha of pastureland. Moreover, during the period from 2000 to 2013, the conversion of forested land into pastureland accounted for almost 56% of total tree cover loss in the Brazilian Amazon (Qin et al., 2019).Finally, increases in cattle ranching in the Brazilian Amazon appear to be more strongly associated with the goal of land grabbing (purchasing or leasing large areas of land that are rapidly converted to anthropogenic landscapes for short‐term profit at the expense of environmental degradation), than in response to an increased demand for beef or dairy production (Filho et al., 2021). Land grabbing is facilitated by the fact that 60% of the Brazilian Amazon is considered public land, and therefore may be sold or leased by the government to private owners (Cardoso Carrero et al., 2022). Individuals can self‐declare and register land with government agencies (i.e., Cadastro Ambiental Rural or Rural Environmental Registry) to begin the process of legal ownership. Land grabbing also has occurred on Indigenous Peoples' lands, in officially designated protected areas or nature reserves (collectively these areas are referred to in Brazil as Conservation Units), and along areas of the Amazon adjacent to recently constructed highways (Cardoso Carrero et al., 2022; Ferrante et al., 2021). Given that cattle production quickly degrades, contaminates, and erodes soil nutrients, and increases the risk of fire, the sale of public lands for cattle ranching in the Brazilian Amazon has resulted in a decrease in the price or value of these lands (Filho et al., 2021). In contrast, in many other cattle producing regions of Brazil, expanding cattle production has resulted in an increase in land prices (Filho et al., 2021).The burning of the AmazonIn 2020, 727,400 ha of standing forest in the Brazilian Amazon was burned (MAAP #129, 2020). Virtually all of these fires (97%) were illegal. And, although over half of the fires occurred on previously cleared areas, 40% occurred on forested lands, including 12% on Indigenous Peoples' lands and in Conservation Units (Maap #129, 2020). During the 6‐month period from May through October 2021, 76% of all Amazonian fires occurred in Brazil (Kimbrough, 2021). Since fires rarely occur naturally in the Amazon, virtually all of the 75,000 fires that occurred in the Brazilian Amazon during 2021 were likely set by humans (Alves, 2022). This has, for the first time, resulted in eastern Amazonia (so‐called arc of deforestation) serving as a source rather than as a sink for environmental carbon (Gatti et al., 2021). The burning of Amazonian forests contributes to a net increase in carbon emissions and is an accelerant of climate change via the combustion of organic material, increased tree mortality, and increased vegetation decomposition (Silva et al., 2020).In contrast, those parts of Amazonia that continue to serve as a net carbon sink are areas that maintain a low human footprint, such as Conservation Units and Indigenous Peoples' lands (Kimbrough, 2021). Indigenous Peoples' lands account for approximately 700,000 km2 or 14.1% of the Brazilian Amazon, with 90% of these lands characterized by intact forested landscapes (Begotti & Peres, 2020). Areas within 10 km of the border of Indigenous Peoples' lands, on average, retain only 52% of their natural landscape (Begotti & Peres, 2020). In this regard, Indigenous Peoples' lands in many parts of the world contribute to “effective area‐based conservation” that promotes animal and plant biodiversity and ecosystem services (Conference of the Parties to the Convention of Biological Diversity, 2018).Dam building, road and rail construction, and miningA recent study examining the conservation value of lands inhabited by primates and current infrastructure density identified the Brazilian Amazon as a priority area where the construction of additional infrastructure should be avoided (Ascensão et al., 2022). These authors also identified several Amazonian primate species including Alouatta nigerrima, Alouatta macconnelli, and Ateles chamek that are highly vulnerable to even limited infrastructure development. Similarly, Vilela et al. (2020) evaluated the ecological, social, and economic impact of 75 planned infrastructure projects across Amazonia. These projects are expected to result in the construction of 12,000 km of new roads. They propose that canceling economically unjustified projects would result in a “smaller set of carefully chosen projects [that] could deliver 77% of the economic benefit at 10% of the environmental and social damage” (Vilela et al., 2020, pp. 7095). Thus, it is possible to design cost‐effective and beneficial development projects that minimize harm to the environment, as well as to local communities.Brazil has constructed or is planning to construct more than 200 hydroelectric dams in Amazonia, imperiling plant and animal biodiversity, as well as the autonomy and existence of Indigenous communities (Fearnside, 2006; Higgins, 2020; Timpe & Kaplan, 2017). These dams are expected to flood 10 Mha of Amazonian forest, turning “all of the major free‐flowing Amazon tributaries east of the Madeira River—in effect, half of the Amazon basin… into continuous chains of reservoirs. This would mean expelling all of the traditional residents from two‐thirds of Brazilian Amazonia” (Fearnside, 2017).As mentioned above, infrastructure development across the Brazilian Amazon, such as highway BR319 which runs from Manaus (a city of over 2 million people) to PortoVelho (a city of over 500,000 people), imperils Indigenous communities, violates Indigenous Peoples' land rights, and fragments natural landscapes. When completed, this highway is projected to “increase deforestation within 150 km of the road by over 1200%”, imperil 25 primate species, and fragment the lands of some 18,000 Indigenous Peoples (Estrada et al., 2022). Highway and rail construction promote deforestation, air pollution, commercial bushmeat hunting, and the setting of fires. Since many of these infrastructures are built adjacent to Indigenous Peoples' lands, there is a spill‐over effect onto Indigenous Peoples' lands (Lima et al., 2022; Mataveli et al., 2021; Silva et al., 2022a). In this regard, the proposed Ferrovia Paraense (FEPASA) railway, funded by China and designed to transport mined ores and agricultural products is expected to fragment 1300 km of forest across the Amazon (Borges and Branford, 2020). As of December 2022, the project is awaiting the completion of studies and a preliminary license to begin construction (https://redepara.com.br/Noticia/230584/cpi-da-vale-arrecada-r-2-5-bilhoes-no-para). In expressing their concern, members of Amazonian Indigenous communities wrote that the government of the State of Pará, Brazil is “forcing on us a development model that does not represent us, that is imposing railways… expelling people from their lands, ending our food security, destroying our people, destroying our cultures… and killing our forests” (Borges & Branford, 2020).Mining also represents a growing threat to Amazonian Indigenous Peoples and their lands (Mataveli et al., 2022). In 2020, an influx of colonists engaged in illegal mining operations on Indigenous Peoples' lands in the Brazilian Amazon resulted in a deadly malaria outbreak among several Indigenous communities. This occurred despite the fact that mining on Indigenous Peoples' lands is forbidden by the Brazilian Constitution (Andrade et al., 2020). In addition, the Bolsonaro government took actions to reduce protections for Indigenous Peoples, open their lands for the extraction of natural resources and illegal occupation, and limit the enforcement of environmental protection laws (Conceição et al., 2021; Roy, 2022). This also has been a catalyst for violence and discrimination against Indigenous Peoples in the Amazon (Rapozo, 2021).INDIGENOUS PEOPLES ARE STRONG STEWARDS OF THE ENVIRONMENTThe Brazilian government legally recognizes some 339 Indigenous Peoples' lands and approximately 900,000 Indigenous citizens (Conselho Indigenista Missionário, 2020). However, the land rights of 280 other Indigenous Peoples are not recognized by the national government. In the Brazilian Amazon, there are approximately 173 ethnic groups and 370,000 Indigenous Peoples living on Indigenous lands (Carneiro Filho & Souza, 2009; Instituto Socioambiental, 2023). The largest population (26,780 individuals) lives on the Indigenous lands of the Yanomami, an area of 9,664,980 ha across the Brazilian states of Roraima and Amazonas. This population is composed of members of eight ethnicities (Yanomami, Ye'kwana, and six isolated groups). The smallest population (six individuals) inhabits the Indigenous lands of the Rio Omerê (26,177 ha) in the state of Rondônia. These few remaining individuals belong to the Akuntsu and Kanoê ethnic groups (Instituto Socioambiental, 2023). Several recent studies provide evidence that Indigenous Peoples are better stewards of their traditional homelands than are national governments (Estrada et al., 2022; O'Bryan et al., 2020; Schleicher et al., 2017). In this regard, Indigenous Peoples have much to teach nonindigenous Peoples about environmental sustainability (Estrada et al., 2022; O'Bryan et al., 2020; Schleicher et al., 2017).Given that area of intact forests have high conservation value for both the Indigenous Peoples who live in the Amazon and for primate communities (Sze et al., 2022), we examined forest cover on Indigenous Peoples' lands (IPLs), Conservation Units (CUs, latu sensu nature reserves), and other lands (OLs, areas outside of IPLs and CUs) in the Brazilian Amazon (Figure 1). To accomplish this we generated 30 × 30 m random points using ArcGIS 10.3. We generated 339 random points located in IPLs (one per IPL shape available in the website of the Indigenous National Foundation: https://www.gov.br/funai/pt-br/atuacao/terras-indigenas/geoprocessamento-e-mapas), 361 random points in CUs (one per CU shape available in the website of the Ministry of Environment: http://mapas.mma.gov.br/i3geo/datadownload.htm), and 350 random points in OLs (350 equals the mean number of random points generated for IPLs and CUs) across the Brazilian Amazon. Land cover type present in each random point (forest, pastureland, or agricultural field was based on data from the Mapbiomas project (Amazonia, collection 3 available at https://amazonia.mapbiomas.org/). A point was considered forested if it was located in a forested pixel. A point was considered pastureland or an agricultural field, if it was located in a farming pixel. We then compared the proportion of random points that were forested or located in pasture land/agricultural fields.We found that 75% of the points in IPLs, 64% in CUs, and 56% in OLs were forested (Chi‐square = 10.164, df = 2, p < 0.01), whereas 5% of IPLs, 7% in CUs, and 29% in OLs (Chi‐square = 90.024, df = 2, p < 0.01) contained pastureland or crops. We also compared primate species richness in each of the random points based on the mid‐point of the range reported in Estrada et al. (2022, see their supporting information tab. S6). Primate species richness was found to differ significantly across the three areas (Kruskal‐Wallis Chi‐square test, p < 0.01). Based on post hoc pairwise analyses, IPLs were characterized by greater primate species richness than both CUs (Mann–Whitney–Wilcoxon, p = 0.0034) and OLs (p < 0.01). In addition, CUs were characterized by higher primate species richness than OLs (p < 0.014). In sum, we found support for the conclusions of previous studies indicating that lands governed by Indigenous Amazonian communities have experienced less deforestation and habitat destruction than have government‐run protected areas and, especially, unprotected areas (Begotti & Peres, 2020; Figure 1).We also found support for a recent study indicating that Indigenous Peoples' lands in Mexico, Central America, and South America contained a significantly greater number of primate species and fewer threatened primate species than a randomly selected set of equally sized nearby locations (Estrada et al., 2022). These authors also reported that the presence of intact landscapes (Human Footprint value < 4) was significantly higher on Indigenous Peoples' lands compared to areas located within 10–50 km of the border of Indigenous Peoples' lands (Estrada et al., 2022). Indigenous Peoples' lands also serve as a buffer against the intensity and spread of fires (Walker et al., 2022). Given their long history of living in the Amazon, knowledge of local ecological processes, and cultural practices of forest succession management, Indigenous Peoples have the potential to play a critical role in the restoration of degraded lands across the Amazon (Schmidt et al., 2021). And, although Indigenous Peoples may not describe their systems of knowledge and subsistence practices in terms of environmental sustainability, they commonly manage their lands in ways that maintain and promote animal and plant biodiversity (Estrada et al., 2022). In this regard, we note that 98 of the 100 primate species present in the Brazilian Amazon range onto Indigenous People's lands (Estrada et al., 2022). The two exceptions are Cacajao ayresi (Ayres black uakari) and Mico acariensis (Rio Acarí marmoset). The geographical distribution of both species is poorly documented (IUCN, 2022). Thus, we argue that there exists a direct link between protecting Indigenous Peoples' land rights, languages, cultures, and systems of knowledge, and the continued survival of Amazonian primate populations.Climate changeClimate models predict that by the year 2050, temperatures are expected to increase by 3.5°C across 80% of the current range of Amazonian primates, threatening the long‐term survival of 83 primate species (Carvalho et al., 2019; Ribeiro et al., 2016). In a worst‐case scenario, temperatures in parts of the Amazon will increase by 5°C–7°C (Carvalho et al., 2019), likely exceeding the physiological and behavioral adaptability required for many primate species to maintain thermal homeostasis during the hottest periods of the year (Sherwood & Huber, 2010). Populations inhabiting forest fragments, as well as those in the expanding arc of deforestation, will likely face the most extreme challenges associated with heat stress (Lopes & Bicca‐Marques, 2017). Moreover, earth systems modeling predicts that by the end of the century climate change will result in an increase in both the area and severity of large convective storms (windthrows) across the northwestern and central Amazon region leading to high tree mortality and a reduction in carbon sequestration (Feng et al., 2023). These same climatic events (windthrows, and savannization) are expected to severely impact the Indigenous Peoples of Amazonia as well (Alves de Oliveira et al., 2021).A way forwardIntense public and political pressure are required and a global call‐to‐action is needed to encourage all Amazonian countries, especially Brazil, as well as citizens of consumer nations, to commit to doing everything they can to meaningfully reduce deforestation, prevent illegal fires set in the Amazon, limit industrial agriculture and cattle ranching only to existing deforested lands, avoid buying noncertified hardwood Amazonian timber, reimagine Amazonian infrastructure development within a zero emissions framework, and insure sovereign land and water rights to Indigenous Peoples (see Woulfe, 2022). Moreover, creating a sustainable conservation system to preserve 80% of the Brazilian Amazon (3.6 Mkm2 of Conservation Units and Indigenous lands), would require an initial investment of 1.5 billion dollars and, thereafter, a cost of 2–3 billion dollars per year to maintain (Silva et al., 2022b). This is a relatively small amount considering that in 2021 Brazil's GDP was 1.6 trillion US dollars, the US GDP was 22.9 trillion, the EU's GDP was 17.9 trillion, China's GDP was 17.7 trillion, and Japan's GDP was 4.9 trillion (The World Bank, 2022). Therefore, a very modest yearly investment from the industrialized nations of the world could safeguard the Amazon in perpetuity (e.g., the amount required to protect the Brazilian Amazon is 0.0005% of the 2022 combined GDP of the G7 countries plus China). In addition, rather than promote a national policy of developing hydroelectric power from the Amazon, the Brazilian government needs to be incentivized to employ its vast northern and eastern coastlines to generate environmentally friendly wind and solar‐based energy while protecting and preserving the health of Amazonian ecosystems. Such a program has begun in the northeastern Brazilian state of Ceará (Wilson Center, 2021). Clearly, the Brazilian Amazon is facing a growing environmental crisis (Rorato et al., 2022) that threatens animal and plant biodiversity, as well as the culture, lifestyle, knowledge systems, sovereign land rights, human rights, and existence of Indigenous Peoples who have lived in Amazonia for millennia (Estrada et al., 2022; Rapozo, 2021).Finally, the election of President Luís Inácio Lula da Silva in late 2022 brings a measure of hope for the future of Brazilian forests and Indigenous Peoples. The new government has empowered the Ministry of Environment and Climate Change and the newly created Ministry of the Indigenous Peoples to protect the Brazilian Amazon and safeguard the rights of Indigenous communities. The Ministry of Environment and Climate Change is headed by Marina Silva, a world‐renowned environmentalist and the 1996 recipient of the Goldman Environmental Prize for her work as an activist in protecting thousands of hectares of the Amazon rainforest (Goldman Environmental Prize, 2023). Sônia Guajajara, an Indigenous Brazilian environmental activist and politician, was named as head of the Ministry of the Indigenous Peoples. President Lula has not only committed to reaching net‐zero deforestation by 2030, he also has committed to restore degraded areas in the Amazon (Rodrigues, 2023; Schröder, 2023). The government plans to invest in the green economy by focusing on regional development and the sustainable extraction of goods and services provided by standing forests. In the absence of these actions and a sustained national commitment to long‐term conservation policies, we are likely to experience a major primate extinction event in Amazonia by the end of the century.Actions you can take1.Sign the INTERNATIONAL RIVERS global call for a moratorium on new hydropower dams https://www.rivers4recovery.org/2.Join with AMAZON WATCH to encourage the Biden‐Harris Administration to take urgent action to protect the Amazon https://amazonwatch.org/take-action3.Organize events on your campus, local community, or through on‐line platforms to educate, inspire, and encourage actions to protect the Indigenous Peoples and nonhuman primate communities of Amazonia.4.Join the campaign to lobby corporations like BlackRock, Citigroup, JP Morgan Chase, Vanguard Bank, and Dimension Fund Advisors that invest billions of dollars in business ventures that violate Indigenous rights and the environmental health of the Amazon https://amazonwatch.org/take-action/call-out-us-financial-institutions-for-pouring-billions-into-the-destruction-of-the-amazon5.Shift your diet to more plant‐based foods and reduce food waste.6.Partner with the RAINFOREST ACTION NETWORK to empower local communities, especially Indigenous and other traditional communities to serve as stewards and decision‐makers in protecting primates and their habitats https://www.ran.org/7.Join the social media campaign #EuNaoSouPet (#IAmNotAPet) against the Brazilian government's proposal to legalize the use of wild animals, including Amazonian primates, as pets.8.Support Re:Wild (https://www.rewild.org/) a conservation organization that brings together Indigenous Peoples, local communities, scientists, business leaders, and government officials to solve environmental problems by creating protected areas and funding research that has benefitted over 16,000 species, including primates worldwide.9.Support GLOBAL WILDLIFE CONSERVATION in protecting biodiversity and get inspired by their conservation successes and blog posts on environmental justice, Indigenous resistance, and primate conservation or to sign your name to letters to support environmental justice https://www.globalwildlife.org/10.Encourage the Brazilian federal and state governments to support existing and new projects focused on sustainable use of forest products, expand investment in biotechnological screening of Amazon biodiversity, enforce policies that mandate payment to local communities for contributing to ecosystem services, and eliminate incentives and subsidies for cattle ranchers and industrial farmers to exploit the Amazon region.11.Support the NATIONAL CENTER FOR RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION OF BRAZILIAN PRIMATES (Centro Nacional de Pesquisa e Conservacão de Primatas Brasileiros/CPB‐ICMBio; https://www.icmbio.gov.br/cpb/) in their efforts to protect and study the primates of Brazilian, identify key Amazonian regions for the establishment of new nature reserves in areas of high species richness or low legal protection, and in investigating the impact of forest fires on primate populations inhabiting nature reserves.12.Support the environmental and social programs and projects of the MAMIRAUÁ SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT INSTITUTE (Instituto de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Mamirauá/IDSM; https://www.mamiraua.org.br/), including those designed to evaluate the effects of subsistence hunting on primate populations.13.Support the INSTITUTE FOR ECOLOGICAL RESEARCH (Instituto de Pesquisas Ecológicas/IPÊ), and their agrobiodiversity project on the lower Rio Negro that oversees the UNESCO Green Citizens campaign (https://www.ipe.org.br/en/news/1845-ipe-s-project-in-amazon-integrates-the-global-platform-unesco-green-citizens).14.Support the INSTITUTO SAUIM‐DE‐COLEIRA (http://www.institutosauimdecoleira.org.br/) and the PROJETO SAIUM‐DE‐COLEIRA (https://www.facebook.com/projetosauimdecoleira/; https://instagram.com/sauimdecoleira?igshid=MDM4ZDc5MmU) and help to save the Critically Endangered pied tamarin (Saguinus bicolor), a species endemic to the Amazon region of Manaus.15.Support projects of forest restoration to increase habitat availability and connectivity (e.g., within the arc of deforestation) https://www.globalforestwatch.org/16.Support and collaborate with Brazilian universities, research institutes, and scientists in developing research and conservation projects designed to protect the nonhuman primates and Indigenous Peoples of Amazonia.17.Support investigations on the impacts of agrochemicals and spillover effects of infectious diseases from people and livestock, on the health of Amazonian primate populations living in contact with the agribusiness frontier https://news.mongabay.com/2020/03/brazil-sets-record-for-highly-hazardous-pesticide-consumption-report/18.Support the work of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in monitoring and assessing the conservation status and population trends of Amazonian primates, along with studies of habitat suitability that are needed to develop data‐driven conservation policies, including primate species that are absent from or occur at very low densities in terra firme forests away from major rivers (https://www.iucn.org/).AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONSPaul A Garber: Conceptualization (equal); data curation (equal); formal analysis (equal); methodology (equal); validation (equal); writing—original draft (equal); writing—review & editing (equal). Alejandro Estrada: Conceptualization (equal); methodology (equal); writing—original draft (equal); writing—review & editing (equal). Vinícius Klain: Formal analysis (equal); methodology (equal); resources (equal); writing—review & editing (equal). Júlio César Bicca‐Marques: Conceptualization (equal); formal analysis (equal); methodology (equal); writing—original draft (equal); writing—review & editing (equal).ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThis research complied with the American Journal of Primatology's principles for ethical research, the ethical treatment of human and nonhuman primates, and adhered to the legal requirements of the countries in which this research was conducted. No animals were used in this research. The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. PAG wishes to thank Chrissie, Sara, Jenni, and Dax for inspiring him to do what he can to protect the world's primates from extinction.CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENTThe authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENTThe data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.REFERENCESAlves, B. M. (2022). Number of wildfires in Brazil in 2021, by biome. https://www.statista.com/statistics/1044209/number-wildfires-brazil-biome/Alves de Oliveira, B. F., Bottino, M. J., Nobre, P., & Nobre, C. A. (2021). Deforestation and climate change are projected to increase heat stress risk in the Brazilian Amazon. Communications Earth & Environment, 2, 1–8.Andrade, E. G., Bispo, F., & Potter, H. (2020). Illegal mining sparks malaria outbreak in Indigenous territories in Brazil. 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An urgent call‐to‐action to protect the nonhuman primates and Indigenous Peoples of the Brazilian Amazon

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Abstract

AbbreviationsCUsConservation UnitsIPLsIndigenous Peoples' landsOLsother lands“Safeguarding Indigenous Peoples' lands, languages, and cultures represents our greatest chance to prevent the extinction of the world's primates”(Estrada et al., 2022).INTRODUCTIONNonhuman primates (hereafter primates) are facing an impending extinction crisis, with 68% of species, for which data are available, listed as Vulnerable, Endangered, or Critically Endangered, and 93% of species experiencing declining populations (Estrada et al., 2022). And, although the proportion of threatened primate species in Madagascar (103/105 species = 98%) and Asia (89/101 = 88%) is considerably higher than currently assessed for mainland Africa (39/85 = 45%) and the Neotropics (71/161 = 44%) (Estrada et al., 2022), relaxed environmental protection leading to increased deforestation, and the expansion of industrial agriculture, cattle ranching, mining, dam construction, oil exploration, and road and rail networks, along with climate change, imperil the survivorship of both Indigenous Peoples and primate communities throughout Mexico, Central America, and South America (Estrada et al., 2017, 2019, 2020, 2022). Deforestation and habitat fragmentation are especially harmful to primates of the American tropics (Playtrrhini), because all species are arboreal and require areas of continuous forest for refuge, travel, and finding food (Eppley et al., 2022; Fleagle, 2013). For instance, a decrease in canopy cover and connectivity resulting from habitat conversion is likely to result in an increase in terrestrial behavior, potentially exposing these primates to an increased risk of predation (Eppley et al., 2022). Here we describe the specific challenges faced by primates and Indigenous Peoples in the Brazilian Amazon and outline actions that individuals can take to safeguard this important world region.Amazonia is composed of nine countries (Figure 1), including one million Indigenous Peoples and more than 400 ethnic groups (Survival, 2022). It is home to the largest area of primary tropical rainforest in the world (5.3 Mkm2) (Butler, 2020a). Brazil, the largest Amazonian nation, accounts for approximately 62% of the Amazon rainforest (Walker, 2019). Brazil also is the most primate‐rich country in the world, with 126 primate species (IUCN, 2022). Approximately 80% (n = 100) of Brazil's primate species inhabit the Amazon (Instituto Chico Mendes de Conservação da Biodiversidade, 2022, Table 1). Data on the conservation status of 10 of Brazil's Amazonian primate species are unavailable. Of the remaining 90 species, 30% are listed as Vulnerable (n = 18), Endangered (n = 6), or Critically Endangered (n = 3), and 10% are Near Threatened (n = 9) (Table 1). The most threatened taxa include relatively large‐bodied primates (6–12 kg) such as spider monkeys, howler monkeys, and woolly monkeys. However, individual species of smaller‐bodied taxa (0.1–3 kg) such as pygmy marmosets, marmosets, tamarins, night monkeys, titi monkeys, cuxiús, capuchins, and uakaris are also threatened (Table 1). Distressingly, 86% of Brazil's Amazonian primate species have declining populations, and only 14% have stable populations. There are no primate species in the Brazilian Amazon that are experiencing an increase in population size (Table 1).1FigureMap of the Brazilian Amazon highlighting the locations of Conservation Units (CUs or nature reserves), Indigenous Peoples’ lands (IPLs), and random points used in our analyses.1TableThe biome(s) inhabited, IUCN conservation status (except when indicated otherwise), and population trend of primate species inhabiting the Brazilian Amazon.vbBiomeConservation statusaPopulation trendAlouatta belzebulAmazonia, Cerrado, Atlantic ForestENDecreasingAlouatta carayaAmazonia, CaatingaNTDecreasingAlouatta discolorAmazoniaVUDecreasingAlouatta macconnelliAmazoniaLCStableAlouatta nigerrimaAmazoniaLCDecreasingAlouatta seniculusAmazonia, CerradoLCDecreasingAotus azaraeAmazonia, Caatinga, Cerrado, PantanalLCDecreasingAotus nancymaaeAmazoniaVUDecreasingAotus nigricepsAmazonia, CerradoLCUnknownAotus trivirgatusAmazoniaLCDecreasingAotus vociferansAmazoniaLCUnknownAteles belzebuthAmazoniaENDecreasingAteles chamekAmazonia, Cerrado, PantanalENDecreasingAteles marginatusAmazoniaENDecreasingAteles paniscusAmazoniaVUDecreasingCacajao ayresiAmazoniaLCStableCacajao calvusAmazoniaVUDecreasingCacajao melanocephalusbAmazoniaVUDecreasingCacajao novaesicAmazoniaNTUnknownCacajao ouakarydAmazoniaLCStableCacajao rubicunduscAmazoniaLCUnknownCacajao ucayaliicAmazoniaDDUnknownCallibella humilisAmazoniaLCUnknownCallimico goeldiiAmazoniaVUDecreasingCebuella niveiventrisAmazoniaVUDecreasingCebuella pygmaeaAmazoniaVUDecreasingCebus albifronsAmazoniaLCDecreasingCebus kaaporiAmazoniaCRDecreasingCebus olivaceusAmazoniaLCStableCebus unicolorAmazonia, CerradoVUDecreasingCebus yuracusAmazoniaNTDecreasingCheracebus luciferAmazoniaLCUnknownCheracebus lugensAmazoniaLCUnknownCheracebus purinusAmazoniaLCStableCheracebus regulusAmazoniaLCUnknownChiropotes albinasusAmazonia, CerradoVUDecreasingChiropotes chiropotesAmazoniaLCStableChiropotes sagulatusAmazoniaLCUnknownChiropotes satanasAmazonia, CerradoENDecreasingChiropotes utahickaeAmazonia, CerradoVUDecreasingLagothrix lagothrichaAmazonia, CerradoVUDecreasingLeontocebus cruzlimaiAmazoniaLCUnknownLeontocebus fuscicollisAmazoniaLCDecreasingLeontocebus fuscusAmazoniaLCUnknownLeontocebus nigricollisAmazoniaLCDecreasingLeontocebus weddelliAmazoniaLCUnknownMico acariensisAmazoniaLCUnknownMico argentatusAmazoniaLCDecreasingMico chrysoleucosAmazoniaLCDecreasingMico emiliaeAmazoniaLCUnknownMico humeraliferAmazoniaNTDecreasingMico intermediusAmazoniaLCDecreasingMico leucippeAmazoniaLCDecreasingMico marcaiAmazoniaVUDecreasingMico mauesiAmazoniaLCUnknownMico melanurusAmazonia, Cerrado, PantanalNTDecreasingMico mundurukuAmazoniaVUDecreasingMico nigricepsAmazoniaNTDecreasingMico rondoniAmazoniaVUDecreasingMico satereiAmazoniaLCUnknownPithecia albicansAmazoniaLCDecreasingPithecia chrysocephalaAmazoniaLCDecreasingPithecia irrorataAmazonia, CerradoDDDecreasingPithecia monachusAmazoniaLCDecreasingPithecia pitheciaAmazoniaLCDecreasingPithecia vanzoliniiAmazoniaDDDecreasingPlecturocebus baptistaAmazoniaLCStablePlecturocebus bernhardiAmazoniaLCStablePlecturocebus brunneusAmazoniaVUDecreasingPlecturocebus caligatusAmazoniaLCUnknownPlecturocebus cinerascensAmazonia, CerradoLCUnknownPlecturocebus cupreusAmazoniaLCUnknownPlecturocebus donacophilusAmazonia, PantanalLCUnknownPlecturocebus grovesiAmazoniaCRDecreasingPlecturocebus hoffmannsiAmazoniaLCUnknownPlecturocebus miltoniAmazoniaDDUnknownPlecturocebus molochAmazonia, CerradoLCUnknownPlecturocebus parecisAmazonia, CerradoNTDecreasingPlecturocebus stephennashiAmazoniaDDUnknownPlecturocebus toppiniAmazoniaLCDecreasingPlecturocebus vieiraiAmazoniaDDUnknownSaguinus bicolorAmazoniaCRDecreasingSaguinus imperatorAmazoniaLCDecreasingSaguinus inustusAmazoniaLCStableSaguinus labiatusAmazoniaLCDecreasingSaguinus martinsiAmazoniaNTDecreasingSaguinus midasAmazoniaLCStableSaguinus mystaxAmazoniaLCDecreasingSaguinus nigerAmazonia, CerradoVUDecreasingSaguinus ursulusAmazonia, CerradoVUDecreasingSaimiri boliviensisAmazoniaLCDecreasingSaimiri cassiquiarensisAmazoniaLCUnknownSaimiri collinsiAmazonia, CerradoLCDecreasingSaimiri macrodonAmazoniaUnknownUnknownSaimiri sciureusAmazoniaLCDecreasingSaimiri ustusAmazonia, CerradoNTDecreasingSaimiri vanzoliniiAmazoniaENDecreasingSapajus apellaAmazonia, CerradoLCDecreasingSapajus cayAmazonia, Cerrado, Atlantic Forest, PantanalLCDecreasingSapajus libidinosusAmazonia, Caatinga, Cerrado, Atlantic ForestNTDecreasingaConservation status: CR=Critically Endangered; DD=Data Deficient; EN=Endangered; LC=Least Concern; NT=Near Threatened; VU=Vulnerable.bListed as Cacajao hosomi in the IUCN Red List.cAccording to the Brazilian List of Threatened Species.dListed as Cacajao melanocephalus in the IUCN Red List.Four of the top seven countries in the world with the most tropical primary forest lost in 2019, 2020, and 2021 were the Amazonian nations of Brazil (4,610,000 ha), Bolivia (858,000 ha), Peru (506,000 ha), and Colombia (410,000 ha) (Global Forest Watch, 2022). Consequently, the long‐term health of Amazonian ecosystems remains in doubt, as vast areas are being transformed into landscapes that are unsuitable for forest‐dependent species (Sales et al., 2020, Table 2). Based on several modeling scenarios, it is estimated that by the end of the century, 50%–90% of the current range of Amazonian rainforest primates will be lost in response to habitat conversion and climate change (Sales et al., 2020).2TableLoss of humid tropical primary forest (HTPF) across Amazonia during the 21st Century.aTotal tree coverCountryHTPFb lost (Mhac)Decrease (%)Lostd (Mha)HTPF lost (Mha)(2001–2021)(2001–2021)(2017–2021)Brazil28.28.162.88.09Bolivia3.48.86.71.28Peru2.33.33.60.82Colombia1.83.34.90.75Venezuela0.61.42.30.21Ecuador0.21.90.90.08Suriname0.11.10.20.06Guyana0.10.80.20.05French Guiana (France)0.050.70.080.01TOTAL36.7581.6811.35aData are from Global Forest Watch (consulted July 7, 2022).bHTPF is humid tropical primary forest.cMha is millions of hectares.dTree cover is based on >30% tree canopy.DRIVERS OF HABITAT CONVERSIONDeforestationAmazonia may soon be approaching a tipping point, in terms forest ecosystem resilience, as almost 20% of its forests have been lost in the past 50 years (Mataveli et al., 2021). Scientists have argued that a 30% to 40% loss of native rainforests could result in “savannization” of the Amazon causing an almost 60% decrease in rainfall, extended periods of drought, and a marked increase in temperature (between 2° and 7°C), subjecting nonhuman primates and more than 11 million regional inhabitants to severe heat stress (Alves de Oliveira et al., 2021; Carvalho et al., 2019). Between 2001 and 2021 Amazonia lost 81.7 Mha of natural tree cover and 36.8 Mha of humid tropical primary forest (Global Forest Watch, 2022; Table 2). Brazil alone accounted for 77% of the total forest loss. The amount of tree cover lost in Brazil during this 20‐year period (62.8 Mha, Table 2) represents an area greater than the size of the country of Ukraine. In April 2021, Brazil created an environmental plan (Resolução no 3, de 9 de abril de 2021) to limit deforestation in its Amazon region to approximately 870,000 ha per year (the average for the period between 2016 and 2020). In terms of rainforest conservation, this represents an amount of deforestation that is 69% larger than the average area deforested per year between 2012 and 2014 (516,000 ha), when the Brazilian government had more rigorous policies of forest protection. Moreover, this new legislation has not been effectively enforced, and in 2021 Brazil lost 1.5 Mha of humid primary forest (Table 2). During the first 3 months of 2022, deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon was 94,134 ha, a 64% increase from the same period the previous year (Rocha & Pozzebon, 2022).Soy production and cattle ranchingIn addition to logging, large parts of Amazonia have been converted into anthropogenic landscapes for purposes of industrial agriculture, principally soybean production and cattle ranching (Gatti et al., 2021). Over the past 30 years, an estimated 8 Mha of Amazonia has been deforested for soybean production (Butler, 2020b). In 2006, a soy supply‐chain moratorium was implemented for Brazil, with major soy trading companies committing not to purchase soybeans grown on deforested land (Gollnow et al., 2018). This program has been successful in reducing rates of deforestation, with over 50% of new soy production grown on land deforested before 2006. However, in 2019 (the first year of Jair Bolsonaro's government), the Brazilian Amazon lost 140,000 ha to new soy production (Schneider et al., 2021). More importantly, an unanticipated result of the soy moritorium is that in moving soy production to already deforested land, principally cattle pastures, new areas of the Brazilian Amazon are being deforested to replace and expand cattle production (Gollnow et al., 2018). In recent years, cattle ranching has surpassed soy production in altering the Amazonian landscape, with “70% of deforested land in the Amazon… used for cattle ranching” (Filho et al., 2021). Today, Brazil is the world's largest exporter of beef, accounting for 23% of total global beef exports (Brazilian Farmers, 2023). In 2000, there were 48 million head of cattle in the Brazilian Amazon (Qin et al., 2019). This figure increased to 86 million head in 2019, and approximately 92 million in 2021. These numbers translate to approximately 38 Mha of pastureland. Moreover, during the period from 2000 to 2013, the conversion of forested land into pastureland accounted for almost 56% of total tree cover loss in the Brazilian Amazon (Qin et al., 2019).Finally, increases in cattle ranching in the Brazilian Amazon appear to be more strongly associated with the goal of land grabbing (purchasing or leasing large areas of land that are rapidly converted to anthropogenic landscapes for short‐term profit at the expense of environmental degradation), than in response to an increased demand for beef or dairy production (Filho et al., 2021). Land grabbing is facilitated by the fact that 60% of the Brazilian Amazon is considered public land, and therefore may be sold or leased by the government to private owners (Cardoso Carrero et al., 2022). Individuals can self‐declare and register land with government agencies (i.e., Cadastro Ambiental Rural or Rural Environmental Registry) to begin the process of legal ownership. Land grabbing also has occurred on Indigenous Peoples' lands, in officially designated protected areas or nature reserves (collectively these areas are referred to in Brazil as Conservation Units), and along areas of the Amazon adjacent to recently constructed highways (Cardoso Carrero et al., 2022; Ferrante et al., 2021). Given that cattle production quickly degrades, contaminates, and erodes soil nutrients, and increases the risk of fire, the sale of public lands for cattle ranching in the Brazilian Amazon has resulted in a decrease in the price or value of these lands (Filho et al., 2021). In contrast, in many other cattle producing regions of Brazil, expanding cattle production has resulted in an increase in land prices (Filho et al., 2021).The burning of the AmazonIn 2020, 727,400 ha of standing forest in the Brazilian Amazon was burned (MAAP #129, 2020). Virtually all of these fires (97%) were illegal. And, although over half of the fires occurred on previously cleared areas, 40% occurred on forested lands, including 12% on Indigenous Peoples' lands and in Conservation Units (Maap #129, 2020). During the 6‐month period from May through October 2021, 76% of all Amazonian fires occurred in Brazil (Kimbrough, 2021). Since fires rarely occur naturally in the Amazon, virtually all of the 75,000 fires that occurred in the Brazilian Amazon during 2021 were likely set by humans (Alves, 2022). This has, for the first time, resulted in eastern Amazonia (so‐called arc of deforestation) serving as a source rather than as a sink for environmental carbon (Gatti et al., 2021). The burning of Amazonian forests contributes to a net increase in carbon emissions and is an accelerant of climate change via the combustion of organic material, increased tree mortality, and increased vegetation decomposition (Silva et al., 2020).In contrast, those parts of Amazonia that continue to serve as a net carbon sink are areas that maintain a low human footprint, such as Conservation Units and Indigenous Peoples' lands (Kimbrough, 2021). Indigenous Peoples' lands account for approximately 700,000 km2 or 14.1% of the Brazilian Amazon, with 90% of these lands characterized by intact forested landscapes (Begotti & Peres, 2020). Areas within 10 km of the border of Indigenous Peoples' lands, on average, retain only 52% of their natural landscape (Begotti & Peres, 2020). In this regard, Indigenous Peoples' lands in many parts of the world contribute to “effective area‐based conservation” that promotes animal and plant biodiversity and ecosystem services (Conference of the Parties to the Convention of Biological Diversity, 2018).Dam building, road and rail construction, and miningA recent study examining the conservation value of lands inhabited by primates and current infrastructure density identified the Brazilian Amazon as a priority area where the construction of additional infrastructure should be avoided (Ascensão et al., 2022). These authors also identified several Amazonian primate species including Alouatta nigerrima, Alouatta macconnelli, and Ateles chamek that are highly vulnerable to even limited infrastructure development. Similarly, Vilela et al. (2020) evaluated the ecological, social, and economic impact of 75 planned infrastructure projects across Amazonia. These projects are expected to result in the construction of 12,000 km of new roads. They propose that canceling economically unjustified projects would result in a “smaller set of carefully chosen projects [that] could deliver 77% of the economic benefit at 10% of the environmental and social damage” (Vilela et al., 2020, pp. 7095). Thus, it is possible to design cost‐effective and beneficial development projects that minimize harm to the environment, as well as to local communities.Brazil has constructed or is planning to construct more than 200 hydroelectric dams in Amazonia, imperiling plant and animal biodiversity, as well as the autonomy and existence of Indigenous communities (Fearnside, 2006; Higgins, 2020; Timpe & Kaplan, 2017). These dams are expected to flood 10 Mha of Amazonian forest, turning “all of the major free‐flowing Amazon tributaries east of the Madeira River—in effect, half of the Amazon basin… into continuous chains of reservoirs. This would mean expelling all of the traditional residents from two‐thirds of Brazilian Amazonia” (Fearnside, 2017).As mentioned above, infrastructure development across the Brazilian Amazon, such as highway BR319 which runs from Manaus (a city of over 2 million people) to PortoVelho (a city of over 500,000 people), imperils Indigenous communities, violates Indigenous Peoples' land rights, and fragments natural landscapes. When completed, this highway is projected to “increase deforestation within 150 km of the road by over 1200%”, imperil 25 primate species, and fragment the lands of some 18,000 Indigenous Peoples (Estrada et al., 2022). Highway and rail construction promote deforestation, air pollution, commercial bushmeat hunting, and the setting of fires. Since many of these infrastructures are built adjacent to Indigenous Peoples' lands, there is a spill‐over effect onto Indigenous Peoples' lands (Lima et al., 2022; Mataveli et al., 2021; Silva et al., 2022a). In this regard, the proposed Ferrovia Paraense (FEPASA) railway, funded by China and designed to transport mined ores and agricultural products is expected to fragment 1300 km of forest across the Amazon (Borges and Branford, 2020). As of December 2022, the project is awaiting the completion of studies and a preliminary license to begin construction (https://redepara.com.br/Noticia/230584/cpi-da-vale-arrecada-r-2-5-bilhoes-no-para). In expressing their concern, members of Amazonian Indigenous communities wrote that the government of the State of Pará, Brazil is “forcing on us a development model that does not represent us, that is imposing railways… expelling people from their lands, ending our food security, destroying our people, destroying our cultures… and killing our forests” (Borges & Branford, 2020).Mining also represents a growing threat to Amazonian Indigenous Peoples and their lands (Mataveli et al., 2022). In 2020, an influx of colonists engaged in illegal mining operations on Indigenous Peoples' lands in the Brazilian Amazon resulted in a deadly malaria outbreak among several Indigenous communities. This occurred despite the fact that mining on Indigenous Peoples' lands is forbidden by the Brazilian Constitution (Andrade et al., 2020). In addition, the Bolsonaro government took actions to reduce protections for Indigenous Peoples, open their lands for the extraction of natural resources and illegal occupation, and limit the enforcement of environmental protection laws (Conceição et al., 2021; Roy, 2022). This also has been a catalyst for violence and discrimination against Indigenous Peoples in the Amazon (Rapozo, 2021).INDIGENOUS PEOPLES ARE STRONG STEWARDS OF THE ENVIRONMENTThe Brazilian government legally recognizes some 339 Indigenous Peoples' lands and approximately 900,000 Indigenous citizens (Conselho Indigenista Missionário, 2020). However, the land rights of 280 other Indigenous Peoples are not recognized by the national government. In the Brazilian Amazon, there are approximately 173 ethnic groups and 370,000 Indigenous Peoples living on Indigenous lands (Carneiro Filho & Souza, 2009; Instituto Socioambiental, 2023). The largest population (26,780 individuals) lives on the Indigenous lands of the Yanomami, an area of 9,664,980 ha across the Brazilian states of Roraima and Amazonas. This population is composed of members of eight ethnicities (Yanomami, Ye'kwana, and six isolated groups). The smallest population (six individuals) inhabits the Indigenous lands of the Rio Omerê (26,177 ha) in the state of Rondônia. These few remaining individuals belong to the Akuntsu and Kanoê ethnic groups (Instituto Socioambiental, 2023). Several recent studies provide evidence that Indigenous Peoples are better stewards of their traditional homelands than are national governments (Estrada et al., 2022; O'Bryan et al., 2020; Schleicher et al., 2017). In this regard, Indigenous Peoples have much to teach nonindigenous Peoples about environmental sustainability (Estrada et al., 2022; O'Bryan et al., 2020; Schleicher et al., 2017).Given that area of intact forests have high conservation value for both the Indigenous Peoples who live in the Amazon and for primate communities (Sze et al., 2022), we examined forest cover on Indigenous Peoples' lands (IPLs), Conservation Units (CUs, latu sensu nature reserves), and other lands (OLs, areas outside of IPLs and CUs) in the Brazilian Amazon (Figure 1). To accomplish this we generated 30 × 30 m random points using ArcGIS 10.3. We generated 339 random points located in IPLs (one per IPL shape available in the website of the Indigenous National Foundation: https://www.gov.br/funai/pt-br/atuacao/terras-indigenas/geoprocessamento-e-mapas), 361 random points in CUs (one per CU shape available in the website of the Ministry of Environment: http://mapas.mma.gov.br/i3geo/datadownload.htm), and 350 random points in OLs (350 equals the mean number of random points generated for IPLs and CUs) across the Brazilian Amazon. Land cover type present in each random point (forest, pastureland, or agricultural field was based on data from the Mapbiomas project (Amazonia, collection 3 available at https://amazonia.mapbiomas.org/). A point was considered forested if it was located in a forested pixel. A point was considered pastureland or an agricultural field, if it was located in a farming pixel. We then compared the proportion of random points that were forested or located in pasture land/agricultural fields.We found that 75% of the points in IPLs, 64% in CUs, and 56% in OLs were forested (Chi‐square = 10.164, df = 2, p < 0.01), whereas 5% of IPLs, 7% in CUs, and 29% in OLs (Chi‐square = 90.024, df = 2, p < 0.01) contained pastureland or crops. We also compared primate species richness in each of the random points based on the mid‐point of the range reported in Estrada et al. (2022, see their supporting information tab. S6). Primate species richness was found to differ significantly across the three areas (Kruskal‐Wallis Chi‐square test, p < 0.01). Based on post hoc pairwise analyses, IPLs were characterized by greater primate species richness than both CUs (Mann–Whitney–Wilcoxon, p = 0.0034) and OLs (p < 0.01). In addition, CUs were characterized by higher primate species richness than OLs (p < 0.014). In sum, we found support for the conclusions of previous studies indicating that lands governed by Indigenous Amazonian communities have experienced less deforestation and habitat destruction than have government‐run protected areas and, especially, unprotected areas (Begotti & Peres, 2020; Figure 1).We also found support for a recent study indicating that Indigenous Peoples' lands in Mexico, Central America, and South America contained a significantly greater number of primate species and fewer threatened primate species than a randomly selected set of equally sized nearby locations (Estrada et al., 2022). These authors also reported that the presence of intact landscapes (Human Footprint value < 4) was significantly higher on Indigenous Peoples' lands compared to areas located within 10–50 km of the border of Indigenous Peoples' lands (Estrada et al., 2022). Indigenous Peoples' lands also serve as a buffer against the intensity and spread of fires (Walker et al., 2022). Given their long history of living in the Amazon, knowledge of local ecological processes, and cultural practices of forest succession management, Indigenous Peoples have the potential to play a critical role in the restoration of degraded lands across the Amazon (Schmidt et al., 2021). And, although Indigenous Peoples may not describe their systems of knowledge and subsistence practices in terms of environmental sustainability, they commonly manage their lands in ways that maintain and promote animal and plant biodiversity (Estrada et al., 2022). In this regard, we note that 98 of the 100 primate species present in the Brazilian Amazon range onto Indigenous People's lands (Estrada et al., 2022). The two exceptions are Cacajao ayresi (Ayres black uakari) and Mico acariensis (Rio Acarí marmoset). The geographical distribution of both species is poorly documented (IUCN, 2022). Thus, we argue that there exists a direct link between protecting Indigenous Peoples' land rights, languages, cultures, and systems of knowledge, and the continued survival of Amazonian primate populations.Climate changeClimate models predict that by the year 2050, temperatures are expected to increase by 3.5°C across 80% of the current range of Amazonian primates, threatening the long‐term survival of 83 primate species (Carvalho et al., 2019; Ribeiro et al., 2016). In a worst‐case scenario, temperatures in parts of the Amazon will increase by 5°C–7°C (Carvalho et al., 2019), likely exceeding the physiological and behavioral adaptability required for many primate species to maintain thermal homeostasis during the hottest periods of the year (Sherwood & Huber, 2010). Populations inhabiting forest fragments, as well as those in the expanding arc of deforestation, will likely face the most extreme challenges associated with heat stress (Lopes & Bicca‐Marques, 2017). Moreover, earth systems modeling predicts that by the end of the century climate change will result in an increase in both the area and severity of large convective storms (windthrows) across the northwestern and central Amazon region leading to high tree mortality and a reduction in carbon sequestration (Feng et al., 2023). These same climatic events (windthrows, and savannization) are expected to severely impact the Indigenous Peoples of Amazonia as well (Alves de Oliveira et al., 2021).A way forwardIntense public and political pressure are required and a global call‐to‐action is needed to encourage all Amazonian countries, especially Brazil, as well as citizens of consumer nations, to commit to doing everything they can to meaningfully reduce deforestation, prevent illegal fires set in the Amazon, limit industrial agriculture and cattle ranching only to existing deforested lands, avoid buying noncertified hardwood Amazonian timber, reimagine Amazonian infrastructure development within a zero emissions framework, and insure sovereign land and water rights to Indigenous Peoples (see Woulfe, 2022). Moreover, creating a sustainable conservation system to preserve 80% of the Brazilian Amazon (3.6 Mkm2 of Conservation Units and Indigenous lands), would require an initial investment of 1.5 billion dollars and, thereafter, a cost of 2–3 billion dollars per year to maintain (Silva et al., 2022b). This is a relatively small amount considering that in 2021 Brazil's GDP was 1.6 trillion US dollars, the US GDP was 22.9 trillion, the EU's GDP was 17.9 trillion, China's GDP was 17.7 trillion, and Japan's GDP was 4.9 trillion (The World Bank, 2022). Therefore, a very modest yearly investment from the industrialized nations of the world could safeguard the Amazon in perpetuity (e.g., the amount required to protect the Brazilian Amazon is 0.0005% of the 2022 combined GDP of the G7 countries plus China). In addition, rather than promote a national policy of developing hydroelectric power from the Amazon, the Brazilian government needs to be incentivized to employ its vast northern and eastern coastlines to generate environmentally friendly wind and solar‐based energy while protecting and preserving the health of Amazonian ecosystems. Such a program has begun in the northeastern Brazilian state of Ceará (Wilson Center, 2021). Clearly, the Brazilian Amazon is facing a growing environmental crisis (Rorato et al., 2022) that threatens animal and plant biodiversity, as well as the culture, lifestyle, knowledge systems, sovereign land rights, human rights, and existence of Indigenous Peoples who have lived in Amazonia for millennia (Estrada et al., 2022; Rapozo, 2021).Finally, the election of President Luís Inácio Lula da Silva in late 2022 brings a measure of hope for the future of Brazilian forests and Indigenous Peoples. The new government has empowered the Ministry of Environment and Climate Change and the newly created Ministry of the Indigenous Peoples to protect the Brazilian Amazon and safeguard the rights of Indigenous communities. The Ministry of Environment and Climate Change is headed by Marina Silva, a world‐renowned environmentalist and the 1996 recipient of the Goldman Environmental Prize for her work as an activist in protecting thousands of hectares of the Amazon rainforest (Goldman Environmental Prize, 2023). Sônia Guajajara, an Indigenous Brazilian environmental activist and politician, was named as head of the Ministry of the Indigenous Peoples. President Lula has not only committed to reaching net‐zero deforestation by 2030, he also has committed to restore degraded areas in the Amazon (Rodrigues, 2023; Schröder, 2023). The government plans to invest in the green economy by focusing on regional development and the sustainable extraction of goods and services provided by standing forests. In the absence of these actions and a sustained national commitment to long‐term conservation policies, we are likely to experience a major primate extinction event in Amazonia by the end of the century.Actions you can take1.Sign the INTERNATIONAL RIVERS global call for a moratorium on new hydropower dams https://www.rivers4recovery.org/2.Join with AMAZON WATCH to encourage the Biden‐Harris Administration to take urgent action to protect the Amazon https://amazonwatch.org/take-action3.Organize events on your campus, local community, or through on‐line platforms to educate, inspire, and encourage actions to protect the Indigenous Peoples and nonhuman primate communities of Amazonia.4.Join the campaign to lobby corporations like BlackRock, Citigroup, JP Morgan Chase, Vanguard Bank, and Dimension Fund Advisors that invest billions of dollars in business ventures that violate Indigenous rights and the environmental health of the Amazon https://amazonwatch.org/take-action/call-out-us-financial-institutions-for-pouring-billions-into-the-destruction-of-the-amazon5.Shift your diet to more plant‐based foods and reduce food waste.6.Partner with the RAINFOREST ACTION NETWORK to empower local communities, especially Indigenous and other traditional communities to serve as stewards and decision‐makers in protecting primates and their habitats https://www.ran.org/7.Join the social media campaign #EuNaoSouPet (#IAmNotAPet) against the Brazilian government's proposal to legalize the use of wild animals, including Amazonian primates, as pets.8.Support Re:Wild (https://www.rewild.org/) a conservation organization that brings together Indigenous Peoples, local communities, scientists, business leaders, and government officials to solve environmental problems by creating protected areas and funding research that has benefitted over 16,000 species, including primates worldwide.9.Support GLOBAL WILDLIFE CONSERVATION in protecting biodiversity and get inspired by their conservation successes and blog posts on environmental justice, Indigenous resistance, and primate conservation or to sign your name to letters to support environmental justice https://www.globalwildlife.org/10.Encourage the Brazilian federal and state governments to support existing and new projects focused on sustainable use of forest products, expand investment in biotechnological screening of Amazon biodiversity, enforce policies that mandate payment to local communities for contributing to ecosystem services, and eliminate incentives and subsidies for cattle ranchers and industrial farmers to exploit the Amazon region.11.Support the NATIONAL CENTER FOR RESEARCH AND CONSERVATION OF BRAZILIAN PRIMATES (Centro Nacional de Pesquisa e Conservacão de Primatas Brasileiros/CPB‐ICMBio; https://www.icmbio.gov.br/cpb/) in their efforts to protect and study the primates of Brazilian, identify key Amazonian regions for the establishment of new nature reserves in areas of high species richness or low legal protection, and in investigating the impact of forest fires on primate populations inhabiting nature reserves.12.Support the environmental and social programs and projects of the MAMIRAUÁ SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT INSTITUTE (Instituto de Desenvolvimento Sustentável Mamirauá/IDSM; https://www.mamiraua.org.br/), including those designed to evaluate the effects of subsistence hunting on primate populations.13.Support the INSTITUTE FOR ECOLOGICAL RESEARCH (Instituto de Pesquisas Ecológicas/IPÊ), and their agrobiodiversity project on the lower Rio Negro that oversees the UNESCO Green Citizens campaign (https://www.ipe.org.br/en/news/1845-ipe-s-project-in-amazon-integrates-the-global-platform-unesco-green-citizens).14.Support the INSTITUTO SAUIM‐DE‐COLEIRA (http://www.institutosauimdecoleira.org.br/) and the PROJETO SAIUM‐DE‐COLEIRA (https://www.facebook.com/projetosauimdecoleira/; https://instagram.com/sauimdecoleira?igshid=MDM4ZDc5MmU) and help to save the Critically Endangered pied tamarin (Saguinus bicolor), a species endemic to the Amazon region of Manaus.15.Support projects of forest restoration to increase habitat availability and connectivity (e.g., within the arc of deforestation) https://www.globalforestwatch.org/16.Support and collaborate with Brazilian universities, research institutes, and scientists in developing research and conservation projects designed to protect the nonhuman primates and Indigenous Peoples of Amazonia.17.Support investigations on the impacts of agrochemicals and spillover effects of infectious diseases from people and livestock, on the health of Amazonian primate populations living in contact with the agribusiness frontier https://news.mongabay.com/2020/03/brazil-sets-record-for-highly-hazardous-pesticide-consumption-report/18.Support the work of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in monitoring and assessing the conservation status and population trends of Amazonian primates, along with studies of habitat suitability that are needed to develop data‐driven conservation policies, including primate species that are absent from or occur at very low densities in terra firme forests away from major rivers (https://www.iucn.org/).AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONSPaul A Garber: Conceptualization (equal); data curation (equal); formal analysis (equal); methodology (equal); validation (equal); writing—original draft (equal); writing—review & editing (equal). Alejandro Estrada: Conceptualization (equal); methodology (equal); writing—original draft (equal); writing—review & editing (equal). Vinícius Klain: Formal analysis (equal); methodology (equal); resources (equal); writing—review & editing (equal). Júlio César Bicca‐Marques: Conceptualization (equal); formal analysis (equal); methodology (equal); writing—original draft (equal); writing—review & editing (equal).ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThis research complied with the American Journal of Primatology's principles for ethical research, the ethical treatment of human and nonhuman primates, and adhered to the legal requirements of the countries in which this research was conducted. No animals were used in this research. The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. PAG wishes to thank Chrissie, Sara, Jenni, and Dax for inspiring him to do what he can to protect the world's primates from extinction.CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENTThe authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENTThe data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.REFERENCESAlves, B. M. (2022). Number of wildfires in Brazil in 2021, by biome. https://www.statista.com/statistics/1044209/number-wildfires-brazil-biome/Alves de Oliveira, B. F., Bottino, M. J., Nobre, P., & Nobre, C. A. (2021). Deforestation and climate change are projected to increase heat stress risk in the Brazilian Amazon. Communications Earth & Environment, 2, 1–8.Andrade, E. G., Bispo, F., & Potter, H. (2020). Illegal mining sparks malaria outbreak in Indigenous territories in Brazil. 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Journal

American Journal of Primatology – Wiley

Published: Mar 1, 2024

Keywords: activism; primate conservation; Protecting Indigenous Peoples' Land Rights; sustainability

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